Drug-Exposed Infants - Research Paper Example

?Running Head: Sociology Drug-Exposed Infants Research Paper Introduction Drugs are one of themajor environmental factors identified to contribute to biological or physiological deformities in infants. It has been discovered by some researchers, such as Streissguth and colleagues (1980), that exposure to drugs or other substances during the early stages of pregnancy could affect the fetus’s biological development. Nevertheless, studies have not yet been successful in conclusively describing these biological risk factors. One of the major explanations for this uncertainty about the specific impacts of drugs on prenatal and perinatal growth is the fact that these impacts are variable (Lewis & Bendersky, 1995). The duration of exposure to drugs or the interaction among environmental factors and chemicals in drugs can affect the kind and seriousness of the effect. This essay discusses the biological risk factors that can influence prenatal and perinatal development of drug-exposed infants. Biological risk factors can have their beginnings prior to pregnancy, during the prenatal period, the perinatal stage, or the period after birth. Perinatal risks could occur from birth abnormalities or illnesses, or a mixture of prenatal difficulties and complications that take place during the final stage of pregnancy. It is currently believed that numerous extremely low-birth-weight infants have been exposed to pre- and postnatal problems, such as exposure to drugs and other substances (Chandler & Lane, 1996). Not unlike exposure to alcohol, drug use can have major impacts on the growing fetus. For instance, the use of marijuana or cocaine during pregnancy could lead to miscarriage, smaller head size, low birth weight, or premature birth. Prenatal drug exposure has been linked to dysfunctional brain processes. Although there are no marked effects in infant at birth, the effect of prenatal drug exposure normally can become manifest later in life (Kenner & Lott, 2007). These prenatally drug-exposed infants can experience behavioral difficulties and problems concentrating or focusing their attention. The outcomes of drug exposure are more manifest in the early phases of pregnancy when the fetus’s vital organs are growing. Gaining accurate knowledge of the important function of timing is crucial, in that the fetus is greatly at risk at a time when a lot of women are not aware that they are pregnant. As a consequence, even the use of ‘recreational’ drugs can substantially impact the development of the fetus (Chandler & Lane, 1996). Exposure to marijuana produces an unusually large amount of carboxyhemoglobin in the pregnant woman, which can cause a persistent mild fetal hypoxia—reduction of oxygen supply to the body (Green-Hernandez, Singleton, & Aronzon, 2001, 283). Less apparent impacts are delayed cognitive problems as an outcome of hypoxia in the growing central nervous system. Drug exposure could also lead to hypoxic disorder by bringing about vasospasm—contractions of blood vessels—with secondary reduction in blood flow to the damaged parts. These damages can take place in the brain. Placental damages can lead to premature birth, making the infant more vulnerable to the other dangers of prematurity (Green-Hernandez et al., 2001, 283-284). According to Nwoke (2008), opiate-exposed infants have more premature lung development, perhaps resultant to chronic fetal disorder. Prenatal stage is an extremely sensitive stage of the human life, and the risk of structural abnormalities brought about by drugs is more considerable in the embryonic phase. Research on the impacts of drugs on the fetus during the prenatal stages is abundant and varied and can be detrimental to the growing fetus; and the risk includes a range of environmental and biological factors (Nwoke, 2008). It is discovered that drugs can be inside the physiological system of a woman prior to conception and it can affect the fetus at birth or noticeable later in life. Addis and colleagues (2001) find out that at times, abnormal infants are born, revealing the damaging effects of drugs on a growing fetus. The 1960s’ thalidomide incident, for example, revealed the possible threats of drugs and other substances for pregnant women. It was reported that pregnant women used the widely known sedative thalidomide as an anti-nausea medication and a sleeping pill that generated negative outcomes for these women, but doctors identified a considerable rise in infants born with incomplete or no appendages/limbs. In several instances, hands and feet were abnormally affixed to the body (Green-Hernandez et al., 2001). At some cases the effects were mental abnormality, blindness, and deafness. Moreover, Addis and associates (2001) reported that prenatal exposure to cocaine was attributed to dysfunctional motor growth at the age of 2. Lewis and colleagues (2004) found out in their research that infants born to mothers who took cocaine while they are pregnant are prone to have cognitive and neurological disorders. Kallen (2004), Stanwood and Levitt (2004), and other researchers reported that certain prescription drugs, like accutane, antidepressants, and antibiotics can also negatively affect the fetus. In addition, an analysis of caffeine intake during pregnancy reported that a slight boost in the risks for low birth weight and miscarriage happens for expectant mothers drinking a large amount of caffeine daily. Moreover, certain malaria drugs can result in congenital hearing impairment, whereas several depressants (e.g. barbiturates) may damagingly affect the supply of oxygen to the unborn baby and lead to brain disorder (Nwoke, 2008). Santrock (2006) and Zanden (1993) concluded that oral contraceptive can be damaging to the fetus and the birth abnormalities include the central nervous system, esophagus, limbs, and heart. In the meantime, other researchers found out that excessive alcohol intake by pregnant women can be very damaging to the fetus. Pregnant women who consume alcohol on a regular basis and in big quantities are prone to have an infant with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). FAS is a group of defects that develops in infants. The defects comprise dysfunctional heart and abnormal-looking limbs and face (Kenner & Lott, 2007). Almost all children with FAS are low in intelligence and there are those who become mentally retarded. Because of the risks it brings about, it is highly recommended that pregnant women refrain from ingesting any alcohol. Furthermore, intake of nicotine, through cigarettes, by pregnant women can detrimentally affect the prenatal growth, birth, and postnatal growth of an infant (Lewis & Bendersky, 1995). Mathews and associates (2003) identified that neonatal and fetal mortality is more prevalent among pregnant women who smoke. Some researchers reported that cigarette smoking during pregnancy resulted in defective cognitive functioning and language abilities at age 4 (Nwoke, 2008). Other researchers, such as Sawnani and colleagues (2004), discovered that crib death, also referred to as ‘sudden infant death syndrome’, and respiratory disorders are usual among the infants of mothers who engaged in excessive cigarette smoking during pregnancy. A growing body of empirical support indicates that the use of Marijuana by pregnant women has negative impacts on the growth of the fetus and later behavior, as well as the development of the neurological system of the infants. The study of Fried (2002) on marijuana reported that drug-exposed infants are physically smaller than infants who were not exposed to marijuana. Other researchers found out that prenatal exposure to marijuana was associated with memory and learning problems at age 11 (Chandler & Lane, 1996). As stated by Kenner and Lott (2007), a number of researchers also found out that heroin-exposed infants manifest some behavioral disorders like damaged motor control, trouble sleeping, bad temper, and trembling. It is substantiated by empirical findings that drugs detrimentally affect infants during the prenatal and perinatal stages. Moreover, cigarette has primary substances that are damaging to the fetus. Some researchers find out that nicotine is a primary substance of cigarette and is inserted into the blood stream by chewing or smoking (Nwoke, 2008). To sum up, substances have their distinct impacts at prenatal and perinatal periods. Numerous studies on the wellbeing of the fetus reported that disorders normally take place based on the fact that mothers consciously or unconsciously use substances which seem harmful to the unborn child. Aside from harmful substances, other factors, like toxic materials, environmental circumstances, and mother’s wellbeing, can detrimentally affect the fetus. Conclusions In conclusion, there are a small number of proofs that prenatal drug exposure, regardless of the type of substance (e.g. alcohol, cigarette, marijuana, heroine, or cocaine), is related to major inadequacies on intelligence tests. Without a doubt, a great deal of current issues concerning drug-exposed infants has been associated with their performance on cognitive and developmental exams. If researchers depend on empirical results from the impacts of other substances on the development of infants as a basis to what they can expect from drug-exposed infants, then they should anticipate slight disparities between non-exposed and drug-exposed infants, with both groups of children perhaps performing within a scale of low to average. Nevertheless, to the degree that the drug-exposed infants come from poor families or neighborhoods, then researchers should also anticipate the deterioration in the performance of children who were prenatally exposed to drugs as they become older. The effect of postnatal conditions on these infants cannot be stressed sufficiently. Therefore, researchers and professionals should identify several of the ways in which early intervention plans can impede or assist the growth of drug-exposed infants. References Addis, A., Magrini, N., & Mastroiaco, P. (2001). Drug Use during Pregnancy. Lancet, 357, 800. Chandler, L. & Lane, S. (1996). Children with Prenatal Drug Exposure. New York: Routledge. Fried, P.A. (2002). Conceptual Issues in Behavioral Determining Long-term Sequel of Prenatal Marijuana Exposure. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatries, 43, 81-102. Green-Hernandez, C., Singleton, J., & Aronzon, D. (2001). Primary Care Pediatrics. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Kallen, B. (2004). Neonate Characteristics after Maternal Use of Antidepressants in Late Pregnancy. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 158, 312-316. Kenner, C. & Lott, J. (2007). Comprehensive Neonatal Care: An Interdisciplinary Approach. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences. Lewis, M. & Bendersky, M. (1995). Mothers, Babies, and Cocaine: The Role of Toxins in Development. New York: Routledge. Lewis, M.W. et al. (2004). Neurological and Developmental Outcome of Prenatally Cocaine-Exposed Offspring from 12-13 Weeks. Mathews, T.J., Menacker, F., & MacDorman, M.F. (2003). Infant Mortality Statistics from the 2001 Period Linked birth/infant death data set. National Vital Statistics Reported, 52, 1-28. Santrock, J.W. (2006). Life Span Development. New York: McGraw Hill Companies, Inc. Sawnani, H. et al. (2004). The Effect of Maternal Smoking on Respiratory and Arousal, Patterns in Preterm Infants during Sleep. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 169, 733-738. Stanwood, G.D. & Levitt, P. (2004). Drug Exposure Early in Life Functional Repercussions of Changing Neuropharmacology during Sensitive Periods of Brain Development. Current Opinions in Pharmacology, 4, 65-71. Streissguth, A.P. et al. (1980). Effects of maternal alcohol, nicotine, and caffeine use during pregnancy on infant mental and motor development at 8 months. Clinical and Experimental Research, 4, 152-164. Nwoke, M.B. (2008). The Effects of Teratogens on the Health of Developing Human Beings. University of Nigeria: Biennial International Conference on Alcohol, Drugs and Society in Africa. Zanden, V. (1993). Human Development. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc. Read More