Theorists and Their Concepts - Essay Example

 While it wasn’t until Emile Durkheim that the concept of sociology was established, the history of human thought and philosophy has long considered issues intrinsic to society and social organization. Since the 19th century three of the most prominent such theorists have been Durkheim, Karl Marx, and Max Weber. Indeed, these individuals are today viewed as the three principal architects of modern social science. Even as many of these individuals’ theoretical perspectives remain in use in some form, oftentimes they are incompatible with each other. This essay examines these individuals’ theoretical perspectives, specifically considering the ways they interact and contrast with each other. One of the most important theorists within the realms of sociological and economics was Karl Marx. While Marx is recognized as being one of the progenitors of communism, his perspectives on the interworking of capitalist society, as articulated in his mega-tome Capital (Calhoun 2007). Marx’s vision of the world was decidedly different from later sociological theorist Emile Durkheim. Durkheim viewed society through the lens of collective consciousness, wherein it was constituted by holistic and moral interactions between members. Conversely, Marx’ perspective on social organization viewed it in much more stark and cynical terms. Marx viewed social organization as evolving through a series of stage. In the early forms society was based in hunter and gatherer forms, these forms then progressed through feudalism and capitalism before a revolution would occur that ultimately resulted in a new communist form of organization (Callinicos 1983). Noted above Durkheim’s perspective on sociological organization hinged on the collective consciousness and the moral and cultural interactions that were contained therein. For Marx society operated more along the lines of exploitation (Callinicos 1983). Instead of moral interaction, individuals in capitalist economies sought to gain the greatest advantage over each other, such that individuals with greater degrees of power and capital would perpetually exploit lower-tier workers (Callinicos 1983). While Durkheim saw society as evolving to an increased emphasis on the cult of the self, Marx saw it as evolving towards more equitable forms of social integration. Today Emile Durkheim is recognized as one of the founders of sociology. Durkheim investigated many questions that were also considered by Karl Marx and Max Weber. Perhaps most fundamentally Durkheim examined the elements that hold society together. While Durkheim recognized that humans were inherently self-interested he argued that the notion of a collective consciousness (a concept borrowed from Carl Jung) held society together (Calhoun 2007). Durkheim argued that it was this collective consciousness that was forged daily in interactions with other members of society (Thompson 2002). Additionally, Durkheim believed humans had a strong moral commitment to notions of collective consciousness, ultimately forming a culture that united individuals (Thompson 2002). While Max Weber emerged from a similar intellectual milieu as Marx to a large part his theoretical perspectives contrast. Greatly influenced by Hegel, Marx firmly believed in an objectively determined means of examining sociological interaction and economic activity. Conversely, German philosopher Immanuel Kant influenced Weber, specifically Kant’s contention that reality is essentially chaotic and incomprehensible (Ritzer 1996). Additionally, Weber eschewed the more structured forms of signification and classification that would be developed by Emile Durkheim. Weber’s perspective on society can be recognized as a sort of hybrid form of Marx and Durkheim’s theories. While Marx emphasized the material world in terms of capitalist exploitation, and Durkheim emphasized collective consciousness within society, Weber more closely considered specific individual actions (Ritzer 1996). For Weber, it was in the individuals’ self-motivated actions that a more thorough perspective on social organization could be established. Weber argued, “...a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects” (Weber 2010, p. 27). This is an important distinction as it places the emphasis of social organization not an external forces of exploitation, via Marx, or collective conscious integration, via Durkheim, but instead the almost existential-like motivating force of the individual. Another of the most sociological perspectives was these theorists’ perspective on religion. Durkheim’s perspective on religion spans an array of sociological considerations. Rather than embracing religious faith at face value Durkheim sought to determine the underlining significance of its use in sociological settings (Thompson 2002). It is recognized that Karl Marx similarly adapted a humanist perspective on religion, seminally referring to it as an ‘opiate for the masses’. Conversely, Durkheim’s perspective on religion wasn’t so stringently linked to manipulation as Karl Marx’s. Instead Durkheim believed that religion was primarily a social tool used to bring individuals together and develop camaraderie (Thompson 2002). As such Durkheim sought to investigate religion through examining the sociological functions of a single culture and then juxtaposing these discoveries with investigations of another religion. Additionally, Durkheim believed that religion was a fundamental human social institution that gave rise to other institutions; within this spectrum of thought religion is recognized as contributing to the very emergence of society. Still, Durkheim argued that in modern society religion was becoming less important and being replace by science and emphasis on the individual (Thompson 2002). Such perspectives can be contrasted with Max Weber’s who like Marx believed religion and the urge towards capitalism were intimately intertwined. Still, Weber viewed religion more in terms of broader range historical processes of organization, rather than a specific means of coping with capitalist organization. In conclusion, this essay has examined prominent theorists Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, and Max Weber. Today one considers elements of these sociologists’ theories emerging and reemerging. While Marx’ communist revolution has yet to come to pass, in many ways Western society has progressed towards greater degrees of socialism, with Europe even being referred to as the welfare state. Additionally, Marx insights into the nature of the base and superstructure, with the economic apparatus largely informing the cultural still seems to apply in the modern world. In terms of Emile Durkheim, while many contemporary perspectives might consider his views on society as structured and united through the collective consciousness as antiquated or overly optimistic it seems apparent that many of his perspectives have a degree of truth in the contemporary world. Perhaps most glaringly evident is his contention that modern society was leaving behind past forms of social integration for an emphasis on self. Today this ‘cult of the self’ is largely witnessed in the ways that individuals implement social media to highlight themselves or in other self-centered ways. Finally, Weber’s perspectives consider that in large part society is chaotic and irrational and the only means of understanding are through specific historical considerations. References Callinicos, Alex. (1983). The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx. Bookmarks. Craig Calhoun ed., Classical Sociological Theory, 2nd Edition (Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA: 2007) Ritzer, George, ed. (1996). "Sociological Theory". Max Weber (fourth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Robert B. Denhardt (2010). Theories of Public Organization. Cengage Learning. Thompson, Kenneth (2002). Emile Durkheim (2nd ed.) Routledge Read More