Core Principles of Positivism - Essay Example

?Questionnaire design What are the principles of Positivism and to what extent do they still guide the design of social survey research today? The positivistic research paradigm earned fame in the near the beginning of 1800s (Rohmann 1999). It was the foremost paradigm for doing research till the 20th century (post World War II). It has been omnipresent throughout the last 200 years and it has restricted to just single way of producing understanding which uses the scientific method. (Rubin & Wood 1997) gave an easy to understand definition of Positivism:"A paradigm introduced by August Comte, which held that social behaviour could be studied and understood in a rational, scientific manner—in contrast to explanations based in religion or superstition" (p. g-6). In the domain of positivistic research paradigm, an expression created 200 years ago, it is supposed that the solitary way in which individuals can be sure that the knowledge is accurate is if it was produced by means of the scientific method; therefore, it includes the empirical methodology, connoting data is gathered from experiment and observation (providing supportive verification) (Rohmann 1999). The scientific attitude towards research comprises of the known course of proposing hypotheses as justifications of phenomena and then creating experiments to verify the hypotheses. Hypothesis comes from the Greek word hypotithenai, which means ‘to put under or to suppose.’ Simply stating, a hypothesis is a conditional idea whose worth needs additional test. The procedure used in placing this proposal under scientific examination (sampling, data collection, data analysis) would require it to be duplicated (termed reliability) so researchers can forecast any future outcomes produced using the identical methods. It is essential that the complete research method be objective to diminish prejudiced explanations of the outcomes. A broad array of statistical methods have been developed as a way of determining reliability and validity, the two criteria considered as proof of academic rigour in the positivistic paradigm. Rigour guarantees individuals employing scientific outcomes that a standard of precision was engaged, signifying any result arising from an examination of the results can be considered to be true. Validity denotes the vigour of the findings and inferences, and can also mean if it is fitting to generalize the conclusions to larger samples or situations other than the ones researched in the study. If each and every one of these set of laws of the scientific method are observed, individuals using the findings of scientific studies should be secured taking action on the basis of their understanding of the findings and consequent decisions and conclusions. In the early twenties, a set of German philosophers in Vienna produced a philosophy afterwards known as the "logical positivism" which depended greatly on Machian neopositivism, Humean scepticism, Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, and Russell's Principia Mathematica. Commencing Mach, the positivists got their assurance that science should stay away from metaphysical conceptions and depend wholly on that can be observed. From Hume, they got their conviction that inductive reasoning is not permissible. From Wittgenstein, the positivists created both their well-known "verifiability principle" and the trust that the aim of philosophical investigation should be the "critique of language" or "meaning analysis." From Russell, the positivist took formal logic as an investigative tool for their meaning analyses. The underlying principles of positivism are that the reality is objective and a researcher can measure it and there are laws which govern social behaviour. Causality, the machine metaphor, and the nature of reality are the three pillars on which positivism rests. The literature on consumer research asserts that the hunt for causal linkages or causal explanation stands significantly in "positivistic social science." For instance, in explaining "alternative ways of seeking knowledge in consumer research," (Hudson & Ozanne 1988)(1988, p. 512) mentions: "The positivists, with their goal of explanation and prediction, place a high priority on identifying causal linkages." (Hirschman 1986) (1986, pp. 239,241) distinguishes the "positivistic metaphysic" with the "humanistic metaphysic" and asserts that the previous states "elements of reality can be segregated into causes and effects," "first stage causes," "second stage causes," and "third stage causes." (Thompson et al. 1989)(1989, p. 134) consider that a large "set of assumptions underlies the use of positivist methods" and that "these assumptions are manifested in many normative methodological prescriptions," together with the recommendation that "science should uncover causal laws that explain the functioning of phenomena." The positivists discarded causality since they viewed "cause" as an unobservable, metaphysical concept that contrasted with Humean skepticism. As noted by Ayer (1959, p. 4), "It is indeed remarkable how much of the doctrine that is now thought to be especially characteristic of logical positivism was already stated, or at least foreshadowed, by Hume." For the positivists, following Hume, if a scientist examines that phenomenon A and B occur with consistent uniformity, there is no means to demonstrate deductively whatever thing other than uniformity relationship. In reality, one cannot (and should not) bring to a close that A causes B. Thompson et al. (1989, pp. 134, 137) deem that one of the assumptions that "underlie the use of positivist methods" is the "machine metaphor": a mechanistic view in which truth is supposed as a machine-like happening determined by forces and constraints. In summary, since the best that could be consummated with quantum mechanics is probabilistic guess such an achievement must be an good enough goal for all science. Once more, it should be highlighted that only prediction is wanted, not "deeper" or causal explanations. "Positivistic metaphysic" believes that "there is a single reality composed of discrete elements." Hudson and Ozanne (1988, p. 509) claim, "The positivists tend to take a realist position and assume that a single, objective reality exists independently of what individuals perceive”. Consumer research has for quite some time been grounded in the positivistic (especially quantitative) research paradigm. In the early on 1970s, the academic research observed a change to qualitative, positivistic research. Afterwards, in the 1980s, researchers began to grapple with post-positivistic notions of consumer research (interpretive and critical methodologies). Researchers (Taylor & Bogdan 1998; Ostergaard & Jantzen 2002; McGregor 2007; McGregor 2008) verified that consumer research even today support itself largely with the positivistic paradigm (and empirical methodology), with merely small, latest progress towards the post-positivistic paradigm through the interpretive and critical methodologies. What are the problems with measuring people’s attitudes? "An attitude is properly settled behaviour, a settled manner of acting because of habitual feeling or opinion Three factors or aspects are here present, (I) an habitual mode of thinking, (II) a settled interest, (III) a settled mode of acting as growing out of habitual feeling or thinking. These three aspects give rise to three types of attitudes, according as one or the other element is emphasized (I) a 'point of view' (appreciative attitude), (II) an 'interest', (III) an action attitude” (McGregor & Murnane 2010). The traditional way of measuring people’s attitude in a positivist paradigm is experiments, quasi-experiments, field experiments, and surveys. These methods have some shortcomings. How a respondent will behave in a closed laboratory setting will be very different from his behaviour in the actual world. Similarly a field experiment will better than closed lab experiments but still the researcher is ignoring other stimulus which may affect the respondents while they are in the experimental setting. The surveys ask questions about a future or a hypothesized situation. Most of the respondents have to imagine their response and answer, but faced with that situation they may not actually react in that manner. There can be instances when the situation is slightly varied in reality and the response of the person is drastically different. For instance, in a survey the respondents are asked if they will ever buy X product and they may say no. But in real life they may face a situation where they are willing to purchase that product. Hence the survey or an experiment does not delve deep into the why of the behaviour but remains at the surface. It is very difficult to explain a phenomenon only on How as it is not a complete picture of the attitude of the respondent. Positivist think reality is stable, irreversible and deterministic while human beings are very complex in nature and there is more than one truth which depends on individuals’ understanding of their world. Researchers endeavour for confidence and knowledge is created by individuals. It is agreed upon knowledge in one culture may not be valid in another culture and a researcher should takes into account social and cultural influences on knowledge creation. Hence the same way of collecting data cannot be applied to all. Not only that, knowledge is not objective and is inter subjective and includes point of views. By treating all individuals same a researcher is prone to lose out on some perspectives as the researcher is guided by their own world view which may be very different from the respondents world view. The survey, observation or experiments are very limited and narrowly focussed. There are numerous ways of finding out the truth other than from the scientific method. These methods can be stories, spiritual experiences, religion, the sacred, mystical, wisdom, art, drama, dreams, and music. Knowledge can have many forms such as it can be cognitive, feelings or personified reality which is in individuals’ minds and jointly constructed. The major hindrance in measuring peoples’ attitude is that the social reality is in relation to the observer and each day concepts need to be understood to realize this reality. The focal point is the life-world and collective meanings and understandings of that world. Reality is socially constructed through the shared experience of people and human nature is designed by how individuals see themselves. Individuals are dynamic and self-generating and hence can have different approaches towards life and situations at varied points in time. Individuals can act deliberately for which they need capacity and opportunity. Reality can be a creation and result of individuals’ thoughts or the exchanges of person’s reality. This reality consist of that which is created by persons in dealings with their contexts and other people ‘s reality. The reality thus generated is provisional upon individual experiences. The inductive logic is trying to find a variety of explanations of reality and identify patterns that preside over and lead human behaviour. It assumes that researcher can assist individuals become conscious of unconscious feelings connected with meanings and understandings so individuals can live together. How individuals make sense of their environment is a meaningful finding and is more important than generalizations objective. Attitude measurement is to comprehend lived experiences from the point of view of those living them on day-to-day. The goal of research thus catered by this logic is a realistic depiction of the interpretations of those experiencing the phenomenon under study. Values loaded intent is to discover the beliefs, customs and so forth that shape human behaviour bias, feelings, hopes, expectations, perceptions and values as these are central to the research process. Respondents have a central role in the research; even instigating it the viewpoint of the respondent who is going through that feeling supersedes that of the researcher. The role of scholar is to unearth conscious and unconscious clarifications people have for their life through discourse with and among participants. In an interpretive paradigm relationship between the scholar who is trying to study a phenomenon and respondents is intense, prolonged and dialogic (deep insights through lot of interaction). Thus to really understand how attitudes are formed and how a person will react in a particular situation needs more than survey or experiments as it is wrong to club people in similar groups. Appendix: Questionnaire on People’s attitude towards recycling Kindly tick the column which best describe your reaction 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Disagree Somewhat Disagree Neither disagree nor Agree Somewhat Agree Strongly Agree     1 2 3 4 5 1 I am ready to pay more for a recycled packaging           2 I only buy brands which are packed in 100% recycled paper           3 I use cloth towels and napkins           4 I do not buy product which have been packed in non recycled packing           5 I generally buy in bulk to reduce wasting           6 I buy rechargeable batteries and a charger           BIBILOGRAPHY Ayer, A.J., 1959. Logical Positivism, N J: Free Press. Hirschman, E.C., 1986. Humanistic Inquiry in Marketing Research: Philosophy, Method, and Criteria. Journal of Marketing Research (JMR), 23(3), 237-249. Hudson, L.A. & Ozanne, J.L., 1988. Alternative Ways of Seeking Knowledge in Consumer Research. Journal of Consumer Research, 14(4), 508-521. McGregor, S.L.T. & Murnane, J.A., 2010. Paradigm, Methodology and Method: Intellectual Integrity in Consumer Scholarship. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 34(4), 419-427. McGregor, S.L., 2008. Ideological maps of consumer education. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 32(5), 545-552. McGregor, S.L., 2007. International Journal of Consumer Studies: decade review (1997–2006). International Journal of Consumer Studies, 31(1), 2-18. Ostergaard, P. & Jantzen, C., 2002. Shifting perspectives in consumer research. In Interpretive Consumer Research: Paradigms, Methodologies and Applications S. Beckman & R. Elliott., Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School Press. Rohmann, C., 1999. The World of Ideas, NY: Ballantine Books. Rubin, A.B. & Wood, D.H., 1997. Research Methods for Social Work, CA: Brooks/Cole.: Pacific Grove. Taylor, S...J. & Bogdan, R., 1998. Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc. Available at: http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1998-07100-000 [Accessed November 24, 2011]. Thompson, C.J., Locander, W.B. & Pollio, H.R., 1989. Putting Consumer Experience Back into Consumer Research: The Philosophy and Method of Existensial-Phenomenology. Journal of Consumer Research, 16(2), 133-146.  Read More