Impact of Positivist Perspective on Research Process - Essay Example

?The way research is conducted is influenced by the research philosophy subscribed by the researcher. It also depends on the research strategy and the research questions. A research philosophy is a belief in the appropriateness of ways of studying a phenomenon, that is, the way of collection, analysis and use of data. Epistemology refers to theory of knowledge. It is about how we come to know. The purpose of science is to transform things believed into things known. There are two major research philosophies in the Western tradition of science, namely positivist (sometimes called scientific) and interpretivist (also known as ant positivist) (Chapter Three: Research Methodology). Methodology refers to the specific methods that can be used to understand the world. Both epistemology and methodology are closely related, the former refers to the philosophy of how we come to know the world and the latter involves the practice (Trochim). Positivism assumes an objective world hence it often searches for facts conceived in terms of specified correlations and associations among variables (Gephart). Positivism is a position that holds that the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena that we experience (Trochim). The purpose of science according to positivists is to observe and measure. According to positivists, science is the method to get truth, to understand the world, to predict and control the world. The universe is deterministic and they are governed by the rules of cause and effect. This could be understood by using the scientific method. In positivism, deductive method is used for postulating theories. Based on the results, theory is revised to better predict reality (Trochim). The positivists emphasised on empiricism -- the idea that observation and measurement was the core of the scientific endeavour (Trochim). They believed that natural laws could be discerned through direct manipulation and observation. The positivists believe that a phenomenon could be observed and described without interfering with it. They also believe that the observations are repeatable. This is possible by manipulation of reality with variations in only a single independent variable so as to identify regularities in, and to form relationships between, some of the constituent elements of the social world (Chapter Three: Research Methodology). Predictions can also be made on the basis of previous observations and interrelationships between variables. The six tenets of positivism are the following (Positivism) Tenet Meaning Naturalism The principles of the natural sciences should be used for social science. Phenomenalism Only observable phenomena provide valid information. Nominalism Words of scientific value have fixed and single meanings. The existence of a word does not imply the existence of what it describes. Atomism Things can be studied by reducing them to their smallest parts (and the whole is the sum of the parts). Scientific laws The goal of science is to create generalised laws (which are useful for such as prediction). Facts and values Facts are to sought. Values have no meaning for science.  Positivism has a long historical tradition. Often, knowledge not based on positivist thought is not accepted as correct. Most of the empirical studies are based on positivist approach. Positivism was a great success in physical and natural sciences. Positivist tradition can be traced to ancient Greek thinkers Plato and Aristotle. After dark periods in European history, the renaissance came in sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Well known positivists were Bacon, Descartes, Mill, Durkheim, Russell and Popper. Positivism gives emphasis on experiments. Experiments help the researcher to identify the relationship between variables. By using quantitative analytical techniques, generalisations can also be made that reflect real life situation. Surveys help researcher to collect data at one point of time. Information about various practices or views can be collected through questionnaires and interviews. To draw inferences from this data regarding the existing relationships, quantitative techniques may be used. The use of surveys help a researcher to study more variables at one time than is typically possible in laboratory or field experiments, whilst data can be collected about real world environments. An important weakness is that it is very difficult to realise insights relating to the causes of or processes involved in the phenomena measured (Chapter Three: Research Methodology). However, possibility of bias cannot be ruled out completely. For example, the point of time of research, the respondents etc. may be selected by the researcher. The aim of case study is to describe the relationship that exists in reality. Case studies can be positivist or interpretivist. In case studies, reality can be captured in greater detail and analysis of more variables are possible than experimental research and survey research. The weak point of case study is that it is restricted to one organisation and so generalisations cannot be made. This is because; it is difficult to find similar cases with similar data to make statistical analysis. But, if there is a need to focus on contemporary events or the phenomena in a natural setting, the case study is advantages (Chapter Three: Research Methodology) . It is good when there is not much theoretical basis for the study. However, case study may not be appropriate when there is need for control or manipulation of variables. In a case study, there may be multiple cases or a single case may be studied. If there are no previous theories, single case help in exploring the phenomena. A single case may also be used to test an existing theory. Cross case analysis is possible if multiple cases are included in the study. The positivist approach to research follows the scientific method. The various steps in this method are to state a research question, develop a hypothesis, develop a research design, collect data, interpret data and accept or reject a hypothesis (Jeffrey A. Gliner). The key feature of scientific research is quantitative measurement of phenomenon and control of variables influencing the phenomena. So, the purpose of such research is to collect data using standardised approaches, search for patterns of causal relationships between variables and confirming or rejecting hypotheses. The most common methods used for this purpose is sample survey and experiment. Survey is generally used for collecting information. Surveys are based on statistical sampling methods. In surveys, representative sample is taken from the population .Then a standardised research instrument in the form of a structured questionnaire is used (Matt Henn). On the basis of analysis, generalisation is made about the population. This approach differs significantly from other approaches. In quantitative studies, there is high degree of pre-conceptualisation. The researcher also has prior assumptions regarding what research questions to address and how these should be formulated. The researcher also decides how the study should be designed. He also has some idea about the likely findings expected (Matt Henn). Experiments may be conducted in a laboratory or field setting. In laboratory, controlled experiment is possible. That is, certain conditions may be introduced into a controlled environment that stimulates key characteristics of natural environment. An example is examining the extent to which responses of a group of voters to questions about political attitudes after exposure to a series of party election broadcasts, vary with that of those who were not subjected to such exposure (Matt Henn). This type of experiments helps the researcher to observe the behaviour of participants. Field experiments are conducted in natural environment under controlled conditions as far as possible. An example might be a situation in which a researcher may physically attack in a public place to examine peoples’ response to the incident to study bystander apathy (Matt Henn). In some cases, manipulation of variables may not be necessary for the study. For example, a comparison of voter turnout in local elections in two different areas where a new initiative is introduced by one local authority and one where no such initiative is undertaken is a quasi experimental study. The new initiative may be voting by telephone. In this case, the researcher would be able to measure the changes in the voting levels due to the introduction of new initiative and also to examine whether there is a cause effect relationship between the variables. Key Features of positivism are given below (download-it.org) Key areas Positivism Basic beliefs The world is external and objective The observer is independent Science is value free Method of research Focus on facts Look for causality and fundamental laws Reduce phenomena to simplest elements Formulate hypothesis and test them Research design Structured formal and specific detailed plans Involvement of the researcher The researcher remains distanced from the material being researched Short term contact Preferred methods Operationalisation of methods so that they can be measured Sampling Large samples Data collection methods Experiments, Surveys, structured interviews and observation Research instruments Questionnaires, scales, test scores The social scientists using the positivist paradigm begins with a theory. From the theory, a testable hypothesis is derived. For example, there may be a theory about the causes of juvenile delinquency. Assume the hypothesis that delinquency is inversely related to social class. In other words, in higher social classes, rates of delinquency are lower (Barbbie). For testing the hypothesis, the first thing to be done is to specify the meanings of all variables related to the study. In the present example, social class and delinquency are the variables. The meaning given to delinquency by Barbbie is “being arrested for a crime.” According to him, social class may be defined on the basis of family income. After defining variables, the next step is to specify how the variables are measured. That is operationalization. It refers to specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable. For example, to conduct a survey of school children, delinquency may be operationalised in the form the question “have you ever stolen anything? (Barbbie)” Students answering ‘yes’ may be classified as delinquents and those who answer ‘no’ may be classified as non delinquents. In the same manner, social class may be operationalised by asking the question, “What was your family income last year?” A set of family income may also be given to categorise them. That is under $10000, $ 10000-$24999, $25000-$49999 and $50000 and above (Barbbie). Everybody may not agree with these definitions. Some think that body piercing is an act of delinquency even if students do not steal. For some, social class also includes standing the community irrespective of the financial status (Barbbie). However, while testing a hypothesis, a researcher is guided only by the operational definition specified by him. Barbbie emphasis that researchers should be masters of operational definitions. It is very important for observation, measurement and communication. Some problems may come up during the course of research. Some respondents may not give the correct answer. Some may make lies. In the example here, the hypothesis was that delinquents will be more among respondents who selected lowest family income category (under $100000). The lowest percentage of delinquents will be in the higher income group ($500000 and above). After getting theoretical clarity and created a strategy for finding the required information, the next step for the researcher is observation. It involves measuring what is seen in the real world (Barbbie). In this stage, there will not be any confusion regarding what to look for. Suppose that a survey is conducted and got the following data: under $10000, 20% delinquent; $10000-$24999, 15% delinquent; $25000-49999, 10% delinquent; and $50000 and above, 5% delinquent. In this case, the data confirms the hypothesis. On the other hand if the data showed under $10000, 15% delinquent; $10000-$24999, 15% delinquent; $25000-49999, 15% delinquent; and $50000 and above, 15% delinquent, then the hypothesis is disproved (Barbbie). That is, the observations did not support the hypothesis. In a study, there should be the possibility of hypothesis being proved or disproved. Only then meaningful findings are possible. In the present example, the researcher started with an interest in the phenomenon juvenile delinquency. The theoretical understanding of the researcher is that social class explains delinquency (Barbbie). The theoretical understanding leads to an expectation about what should be observed if the theory is correct. It can be expressed in the form of a notation. The notation x=f (Y) means that X (delinquency) depends on Y (social class) (Barbbie). Testable hypothesis is formulated through operationalisation process. Then observations are made to see whether hypothesis describes the reality. In positivism, therefore, facts are separated from values. The data is subjected to rigorous analysis to arrive at the truth. Works Cited Barbbie, Earl. The Practice of Social Research. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2004. Chapter Three: Research Methodology. 23 March 2011 . download-it.org. Research Philosophies,Approaches and Strategies. 23 March 2011 . Gephart, Robert. Paradigms and Research Methods. 1999. 23 March 2011 . Jeffrey A. Gliner, George Arthur Morgan. Research Methods in applied settings: an integrated approach to design and. 23 March 2011 . Matt Henn, Mark weinstein, nick Foard. A Short Introduction to Social Research. London: Sage, 2006. Positivism. 2011. 23 March 2011 . Trochim, William M.K. Positivism & Post-Positivism. 2006. 23 March 2011 . Read More