Marxism, Feminism and Postmodernism - Essay Example

? Marxism, Feminism and Postmodernism Marxism Introduction According to Rizter (2000), Marxism refers to a social and economicsystem, which is based on the political and economic theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The theory purports that class struggles is central in analyzing social change, especially in the Western societies. Marxism can be regarded as the antithesis of capitalism, which entails an economic system based on private ownership of distribution of goods and the means of production. Marxism entails the system of socialism, whereby the dominant features include the public ownership of exchange, distribution, and means of production. The analysis of the seemingly complex but developing relations between social classes in society is at the center of this theory. Discussion Marxists have categorized the society into two main social classes; the capitalists (bourgeoisie) and the proletariat. Capitalists can be regarded as the owners of resources and means of production. The other social class, the proletariat, comprises of workers, who have to work for their own survival. Marxists argue that the proletariats, who comprise of the working class, do not own any property. The only thing they own is their labor, which they sell to the capitalists. Marxists also purport that the relations of people to production acts as the basis for defining class. History can be viewed to comprise of uprisings, class struggles and wars (Marx & Engels, 2009). In a capitalist society, workers receive a minimum pay, which they use to support their families. The worker seems alienated since he cannot control the products of his labor or the labor itself. Capitalists take advantage of workers because they sell the products at a value proportional to the labor used in production. In order to oppress the workers, capitalists do not pay extra wages or salary for extra number of hours worked. Marxists identified surplus value, which can be termed as the difference between the incomes earned by the workers and the price of the commodities produced (Mattick, 1983). Marxists argue that the proletariat continues to suffer in the hands of capitalists; this may be worsened by economic recessions. The recessions result from the working classes’ inability to purchase the products of their labor. To some extent, failure of the capitalists to consume all the surplus value may also contribute to economic recessions. Eventually, a socialist or proletariat revolution must be witnessed; this occurs because the state acts as a dictator to the proletariat. The ruling class uses force to maintain their rule of other classes in the society. This ensuing change from revolutions and socialism gives birth to communism, which advocates the distribution of resources in accordance to a person’s efforts. The workers can only survive by selling their labor to the capitalists; this precipitates the exploitation of the workers. The capitalist views the worker’s labor as a commodity, which can be sold or bought. The worker lacks control for the product since he cannot be termed as the owner of the product. All the profits realized from the products belong to the capitalist because he has already purchased the labor of the worker. As such, the worker cannot make any claims as to the ownership of the product (Mattick, 1983). Sowell (1985) asserts that, in Marxism, capital refers to the act of buying a commodity in order to sell at a higher profit than the price at which the commodity was bought. In the commodity exchange, a commodity may be exchanged for money, and the commodity is then exchanged for another commodity. Marxists differentiate between exchange value and use value of a commodity, which may be differentiated from other commodities in the market. Use value entails the physical properties of a commodity; this refers to the human needs fulfilled by product and the material uses of the products. In the exchange value, arguments are based on the fact that two commodities can be exchanged in the market since they can be compared to a third object. Advantages of Marxism Marxism can be credited for a number of reasons; the theory has several advantages, which makes it a credible approach in the explanation of class relations. First, the theory acknowledges the significance of explicit theory. Thus, the theory expounds the myth of value-free social science. In doing so, the theory exposes people to the massive social, economic, and political inequalities in the contemporary society (McClellan, 1988). Through the theory, people in the society get the motivation to work towards the achievement of the rights denied by the ruling class. Thus, the theory acts as the basis to achieve equality in the society. Another notable advantage of the theory is that it emphasizes the vitality of social class in relation to the ownership of property in the society. This is essential as it helps in understanding the basis of resource distribution in a modern capitalistic society. Further, the theory helps to highlight material conditions of production and distribution of commodities in the society. The distribution of commodities and the basis of production in the society can be regarded as key factors that cannot be ignored (Sowell, 1985). Disadvantages and Critique of Marxism Despite the advantages of the theory, Marxism can be criticized due to its weaknesses. Marxism never takes into account the impact of governmental regulation as well as welfare on the capitalistic system. Some aspects of capitalism such as monopolies and trusts may not succeed because unionization and legislation prevents them. Marxism can also be regarded as disadvantageous since the theory disregards aspects such as competition (Sherman, 1995). The aspect of competition in the society can be considered essential since it helps in enhancing innovation and new ideas in the society. Marxism has received criticism since the theory downplays the role of individuals, and only concentrates on groups. Individuals play a central role in the society in the absence of other members of the society. Marxism can also be criticized for assuming that economics is the only thing that drives history. This view appears simplistic from Karl Marx’s labor theory of value. There may be other driving forces of the economy, which may include civilization and individualism (Lichtheim, 1961). Two images that related to the theory According to Worsley (2002), the most notable Marxism theorists include Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels; they proposed a number of features, which characterize the theory of Marxism. They argued that the main features in a society include economic classes. These classes relate to each other according to the mode of production of each historical epoch. Marx and Engels also argued that how people relate to the means of production defines a class. The two scholars purported that capitalists own the means of production while the proletariat only own their capacity to work. Marx and Engels noted that the society is mostly characterized by the history of class struggles, which give birth to new classes. Engels (2004) asserts that, as a result, new societal forms may arise when the new classes overpower the capitalistic classes. They referred to this doctrine as historical materialism. Marx and Engels also classified society as an entity having several stages in history, which include primitive communism, barbarism, slave society, feudalism, capitalism, socialism and communism. Primitive communism includes equalitarian hunting as well as gathering, while barbarism may be characterized by the rule of chieftaincies. Slavery society is mainly characterized by agriculture as well as a slave class. They argued that, in order for new classes to win power, there must be a revolution in the society. These revolutions may be characterized by immense violence since the ruling class rarely gives up (Worsley, 2002). How the theory relates to the client and me as an individual The theory of Marxism relates to me as an individual in a number of ways. First, the theory helps me to gain awareness on the issue of social inequality in today’s society and the extent to which the influential persons oppress the poor. The theory also creates insights on the various social classes in the society and the relationship between these classes. From the theory, I have learnt about the modes of production in a capitalistic society and the extent of exploitation. The theory has made me knowledgeable about the misuse of power by the ruling class; the systems of governance expressly use their powers to exploit the poor. To some extent, the theory also relates to the client. While applying the theory, people can be sensitized about their rights and freedoms. This way, they will be able to rise against the oppressive and exploitative rule of the capitalists. Workers can be mobilized to revolt against oppression and exploitation by employees. The theory has been particularly vital in fighting for the rights of oppressed industrial workers (Engels, 2004). To a client, the theory instills the urge to agitate for equal rights and privileges with the employers. Thus, the theory helps clients to work towards the realization of their ultimate rights, freedom, and privileges. The theory acknowledges the need for equality in the society; this can be termed as essential since it creates the avenue to grant people what they deserve (Curtis, 1997). Conclusion Marxism can be regarded as a social and economic system, which is based on the economic and political theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The theory holds that class struggles are central in analyzing social change. Two significant images relevant to the theory include Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The theory relates to me as it exposes me to the diverse inequalities in the contemporary society. The theory relates to the client because it can be used to instill thoughts of struggle for freedom and equal rights. References Curtis, M. (1997). Marxism: The Inner Dialogues. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. Kendall, D. (2011). Sociology in our times. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Lichtheim, G. (1961). Marxism: An Historical and Critical Study. New York: Taylor & Francis. Marx, K. & Engels, F. (2009). The Communist Manifesto. Middlesex: Echo Library. McClellan, D. (1988). Marxism: essential writings. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mattick, P. (1983). Marxism, Last Refuge of the Bourgeoisie? New York: M. E. Sharpe, Inc. Rizter, G. (2000). Sociological theory. London: McGraw-Hill. Sowell, T. (1985). Marxism: philosophy and economics. New York: Quill. Sherman, H. J. (1995). Reinventing Marxism. London: JHU Press. Worsley, P. (2002). Marx and Marxism. London: Routledge. # 2. Feminism. Introduction Feminism encompasses an array of movements directed at defining, instituting, and shielding the privileges and interests of women in the political, economic, and social realms of society to ensure that there is equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies inspired by women’s experiences, and which attempt to further women’s rights interests, and issues within the society. In addition, feminism roots for even opportunities for women in education as well as employment. Discussion The mobilization for women suffrage in Europe, as well as United States during the late 19th and early 20th century marked the first wave of feminism in which women acquired political rights. Feminism was rejuvenated in the late 1960’s and early 1970’s after almost four decades of dormancy. During this time, women pushed past the previous quest for political rights by fighting for enhanced equality across the board such as in education and employment sector. The activism in 1960’s and 1970’s can be labelled as the second wave of feminism while the third wave arose from criticizing the second wave of feminism. The third wave of feminism is centred on previous feminist’s failure to pay attention to differences among women occasioned by factors such as race, ethnicity, class, nationality, and religion (Beasley, 1999). Third wave feminists also highlighted the prominence of identity in gender struggles. Feminists regard their work as attending to the importance of sexual perspectives in modes of thought and offering to contest the masculine bias. Feminists articulate issues concerning accounts of sexism while critiquing sexist social and cultural practices that are prevalent within the society. In addition, they model an alternative world in which equality between the sexes prevails. Feminists argue that the mainstream social and political theory is characteristically different from feminist thought because it is a party to three continuing processes. These include exclusion, marginalization, and trivialization of women plus their accounts of social and political life (Beasley, 1999). The distinction of feminism from other theoretical perspectives lies in its assumption of male superiority and centrality. Feminist literary criticism refers to political acts aimed at interpreting the world as well as altering it by manipulating the consciousness of readers and the content they read. A feminist critic is resisting rather than assenting and engages in exorcising the male mind entrenched in men as well as women. Feminist critics re-examine male writers from a feminist point of view (Tandon, 2008). Feminist theory presents diverse and sometimes competing approaches in critiquing the patriarchal modes of domination over women in familial, political, religious, economic, social, legal, and artistic domains. Feminism thought has undergone and continues to undergo significant modifications. The four principal currents within feminism thought include liberal feminism, socialist feminism, Marxism feminism, and radical feminism. Liberal feminism is directed at accomplishing economic and political fairness within the context of a capitalist society. Liberal feminism holds that all people are equal and deserves parity of opportunity, notwithstanding gender. Libertarian feminism roots for individual autonomy, rights, liberty, independence, and diversity within society, and focus in social change via legislation and regulations (Tong, 1998). This approach spotlights barriers that women encounter, which are gender motivated. Radical feminism views the oppression of women as the elementary form of oppression, which dissects race, culture, and economic class (Grant, 1993). Radical feminism spotlights male power and privilege as being the core causes of oppression within the society. This approach calls for social change in revolutionary proportions. In a special way, the movement questions why women should adopt certain roles based on biology. This approach attempts to demarcate lines between biologically-determined behaviour and culturally-inspired behavior so as to free both men and women in their narrowly defined gender roles (Thompson, 2001). Socialist feminism is critical of both Marxism and Capitalism. This approach highlights women’s roles and status in the household as highly marginalized by their dual role of bringing up children and working. This enables employers to exploit the dual role by paying the women minimal wages. Socialist feminists note that male influence is consolidated by ideological myths concerning women, which perpetuates a strong socialising influence upon women. This renders women economically dependent on men. Socialist feminists root for even chance for women in the public sphere (Somekh & Lewin, 2011). Marxist Feminism evaluates capitalism as a source of oppression of women, especially division of labour, which influences gender roles expectations. Marxist feminists hold that capitalist class relations are the origin of women oppression, exploitation, and discrimination. Thus, the patriarchal system, in which men dominate positions of power and influence, is seen as a justification to the economic exploitation of women (Somekh & Lewin, 2011). Nevertheless, Marxist feminists elevate the ideology of social class over patriarchy and also hold that if women were to be liberated, capitalism must be substituted with socialism. The multiple approaches to feminism portray precise issues that feminism is all about; issues concerning dependence, subordination, and superiority. Cultural feminism highlights the fundamental personality differences between men and women, which ought to be celebrated. Other feminism approaches include separatists, ecofeminists, Amazon feminists, postmodern feminism and black feminism. Advantages of the Theory Feminism has been crucial in enlightening and liberating women from male domination, especially through practices such as affirmative action and equal opportunities for all within the work place. As Harding asserts, feminism has been critical in confronting marginalizing and discriminatory traditional roles (2004). This in turn, has enabled women to break the glass ceiling. Similarly, feminism has contributed towards flourishing of diverse human potential by confronting the caps that previously subordinated women. Disadvantages and Critique of the Theory Feminism has some negative effects, especially on the influence it has had on divorce laws, which have a bias towards women. Other unintended consequences include some women becoming anti-maternal. After all, procreation was one of core contributors to oppression. Critics argue that feminism has led to the onset of women having an unfair advantage over men in issues concerning divorce arrangement, custody of children, and sexual harassment issues. Similarly, there are some women who may harbour resentment towards men thereby becoming sexist. Feminism is grounded in exaggerations of patriarchal society. Feminism promotes hate against males within society. The oppression within patriarchy system cannot be said to be selective; men are equally oppressed under patriarchy. Oppression within the capitalist society is not necessarily gendered (Donovan, 2006). Most feminists tend to view the world through biased lens, leading to a prejudiced evaluation of the society, especially traditional gender roles. Two Images relevant to the theory and how they relate to the theory One of the prominent contributors to feminism is Sandra Harding, who criticizes most of the Sociological theories, which she labels as gender biased. Harding believes that males profit from ascribed status. Therefore, it is highly unlikely for males to denounce gender privilege. She also holds that social theory should be created and be inclusive of issues central to women. She also proposes value-neutrality in the sciences as espoused by her engagement in Feminist standpoint theory. The theory rests on three critical claims; knowledge is socially situated, marginalized groups are better placed socially for them to know things and ask questions compared to non-marginalized groups and that research should highlight power relations by beginning with the lives of the marginalized (Donovan, 2006). Patricia Hill Collins also contributed to feminist theory and methodology. She rooted for a sociological theory that focuses on the outsider groups, especially those that lack a voice. In addition, she emphasizes the centrality of emotional concepts. She asserts that individuals’ reality constructs are linked to the groups to which they belong. She portrayed African-American women as self-defined and self-reliant individuals, who are not shy of confronting race, gender, and class generated oppression (Harding, 2004). She also asserts the significance of knowledge in empowering oppressed people. A key proponent of Black feminism, she highlighted three principal themes in black feminism; the meaning of self-definition and self-valuation, the interlocking nature of oppression whereby gender, race and class are interrelated, and the significance of African-American women’s culture. How the theory relates to the Client The application of feminism within society is broad and transverses social, political, economic, and legal systems of society. Feminism has been the bedrock to the achievement of substantial rights to women. Feminism has transformed law and politics in many countries inclusive of affirmative action, divorce reforms, and provisions relating to sexual harassment. As a result of the reforms, women can share a platform with men devoid of exploitation. Feminism theory is crucial in informing human rights activism as well as in literary criticism (England, 1993). How the Theory relates to me as an Individual I believe that man and women are of equal worth and should be accorded the dignity they deserve. Feminism has helped me to recognize the apparent male supremacy within the society and the need for change and empowerment of women worldwide. As England (1993) notes, feminism has resoundingly shaped the need to bring about gender equity and ultimately eradicate the gender double standard. Feminism resonates well with me as it is apparent that, despite the inroads made, more commitment is needed to make to level the playing field. Women still have not yet fully attained political, social, and economic equality. Conclusion In conclusion, the term feminism has diverse uses and its meanings are repeatedly contested. Feminism may refer to distinct political movements in the U.S. and Europe. Similarly, feminism may as well refer to the notion of existence of structural injustices against women within the society emanating from the patriarchal system. Feminism theory can be utilized in psychotherapy whereby knowledge on societal, cultural, and political causes of inequality is utilized. The theory has helped me to identify and relate the real problems confronting society such as domestic violence and sexual assault. Two images relevant to the theory include Sandra Harding and Patricia Hill Collins. References Beasley, C. (1999). What is Feminism? : An introduction to feminist theory. London, UK: Sage. Donovan, J. (2006). Feminism Theory: The intellectual traditions. New York, NY: Continuum. England, P. (1993). Theory on gender: Feminism on theory. New York, NY: Aldine De Gruyter. Grant, J. (1993). Fundamental feminism: Contesting the core concepts of feminist theory. London, UK: Routledge. Harding, S. (2004). The feminist standpoint theory reader: Intellectual and political controversies. London, UK: Routledge. Harding, S. (2006). Science and social inequality: Feminist and postcolonial issues. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. Somekh, B. & Lewin, C. (2011). Theory and methods in Social research. London, UK: Sage. Tandon, N. (2008). Feminism: A paradigm shift. New Delhi, India: Atlantic. Thompson, D. (2001). Radical feminism today. London, UK: Sage. Tong, R. (1998). Feminist thought: A more comprehensive introduction. Denver, CO: Westview Press. # 3. Postmodernism. Introduction Postmodernism incorporates a wide range of conceptual frameworks and ideologies shaped out of opposition to those commonly related to ideologies of modernity as well as modernist notions centering on knowledge and science. Postmodernism encompasses a wide range of disciplines and areas such as art, music, architecture, film, literature, sociology, communications, fashion, technology, and education among others. These notions comprise of philosophies of materialism, pragmatism, empiricism, structuralism, and reductionism. Postmodernist perspectives have an immense bearing on the construction and application of knowledge. Discussion Postmodernism can be considered both a philosophical movement and a learning theory; it integrates several philosophical and critical methods that dispute the status quo within society. Some of the theories emanating from postmodernism include feminism, neo-Marxism, Post-colonialism, and post-structuralism among other theoretical frameworks. Postmodernism is a philosophical proposal that stems from the notion that reality is inaccessible through human investigation and that knowledge illustrates social construction (Taylor & Winquist, 2001). In addition, postmodernism holds that the meaning of words should be determined by readers rather than the authors. Postmodernism approaches customary ideas and practices in a non-conventional manner entirely distinct from super- structural modes. The meanings of the term postmodernism in the intellectual discourse and cultural vernacular are not clear-cut. Postmodernism has assumed diverse forms such as divergent theoretical analysis of self-conscious cultural forms, political ideological for the rightist, and a cultural description of novelty. Nevertheless, the term postmodernism mainly describes a historical period that has presumably succeeded modernity (Kendall, 2011). Modernity in this case illustrates the historical period spanning the sixteenth to mid twentieth centuries. This is the period in which modernity gained prominence, with science and technology inclusive of mass communication and transportation shaping human perceptions. Modernity encompasses experiences of transformation, organization, differentiation, and reflection. Postmodernism, on the other hand, illustrates a series of breaks and continuities amid modern and contemporary conditions. The relationship between modernity and postmodernism is usually presented as a dichotomy, which implies that each entity is independent and monolithic. The differences between the two approaches are manifested by their distinct characteristics such as modern organizations favouring consistent structures grounded in stability, tradition, and custom while postmodernism rooting for agile cultures (Taylor & Winquist 2001). Postmodernists argue that the approach is grounded in modernity itself and that it is a mere continuation of modernity, but in a divergent mode. Most of the differences within postmodernism fall along linguistic and the postmodern cultural lines, which are apparent in the society. Postmodernist critique of science rests on two interconnected arguments; epistemological and ideological, both of which derive from subjectivity. One of the outcomes of modernism is what postmodernists refer to as de-realization, which influences both the subjects and the objects of experience. This incorporates aspects such as their sense of identity, constancy, and substance. Postmodernists rethink several concepts held dearly by enlightenment humanism as well as modernists inclusive of subjectivity, temporality, referentiality, progress, empiricism, and the rule of law (Kendall, 2011). Postmodern grand theories attempt to explain political, social, economic, and cultural developments within contemporary society. Postmodernism derives from post-structuralism and deconstructionism, which were originally critiques to structuralism movements of the 1960’s. Critical theory borrows heavily from neo-Marxism, post-colonialism, and feminist theories. Post-colonialism refers to abstract representations of the global arena soon after the colonial period with descriptions on institutional conditions of the formerly colonial societies. Post-colonialism rests on descriptions of discourses shaped by psychological as well as epistemological orientations (Drolet, 2004). One of the central claims of post-colonialists is that modernism and modernity are part and parcel of a colonial project of dominion. Poststructuralists respond to abstraction of cultural data prominent in model building. Cultural relativists hold that model building is constrains the understanding of thought and action. Poststructuralists mostly concentrate on reflexivity as well as the hunt for logical practice. In the course of poststructuralists undertaking, the accounts of participant’s behaviour and meanings are lack objectification by the observer (Hakutani, 2002). Neo-Marxists explore the broader consideration of both social and intellectual influences that fuel oppression of the working class (Kendall, 2011). Neo-Marxists incorporate elements of critical theory and psychoanalysis and denote work in radical political economy. Neo-Marxism attempted to merge revolutionary aspirations and concepts of Marxism with some of the tools availed by non-Marxist economics, especially Keynes’ economics (Brown & Szeman, 2000). Advantages of the Theory One of the advantages of postmodernism lies in the fact that it is a liberating movement, which champions the cause of the marginalized. The oppressed in this case comprise of interest groups, communities, and other identities such as women, racial groups, gays and lesbians, and ethnic minorities among others. Postmodernism provides the above parties with a chance to shape reality from their own perspectives (Sim, 2011). In its effort of championing the cause of the poor, postmodernism avails a chance to end the dominance of one history, which is a liberating experience. The ending of a particular dominant history paves way for other discourses. Similarly, postmodernism leads top cultural reinvention accompanied by activation of traditional life via globalization to produce multiple images of otherness or pluralism (Taylor & Winquist, 2001). Postmodernism enhances mass tourism and traditionalism, which is a resultant of globalised leisure capitalism. This avails a vital economic incentive for multiculturalism. Postmodernism has been a useful in pointing out the fact that people are not necessarily a homogeneous group but rather belong to diverse socioeconomic groups based on race, ethnic, and class identities. Postmodernism is a critique of modernism avails all-encompassing inquiry of modern institutions, practices, and forms of rationality (Brown & Szeman, 2000). Disadvantages and Critique of the Theory Feminist theorists are cautious about postmodernism since they perceive the theory as being too distant from political struggles, which are perceived as harbouring an immense bearing on society. The feminists mostly recognize postmodernism approach as an epistemology rather than a theory. They also argue that postmodernism may guide people away from collective action towards fundamental individualism. In addition, they argue that the approach is radically detached from material reality. Therefore, the concentration of the discourse and representation overlooks material inequality, injustice, and oppression. Postmodernism is an essential strategy for inquiring claims to truth or knowledge (Taylor, 2008). A critique of postmodernism lies in the fact that the theory contradicts itself via self-reference. Postmodernists presuppose concepts, which they seek to undermine such as freedom, subjectivity, or creativity (Drolet, 2004). Furthermore, the theory resists categories and distinctions, which makes it difficult to perceive its worldview. Similarly, postmodernism is embroiled in controversy and does not add to analytic knowledge. In fact, the approach has been labelled as problematic since it leads to destruction of multiple forms of knowledge, especially those distinct to people subjected to western colonialism. Two Images relevant to the theory and how they relate to the theory One of the prominent contributors to this theory is Michel Foucault, a cultural theorist who views the social order in the world as consisting of economics, law, and the state. In his analysis, Foucault challenged the influences of Marx and Freud whereby he stipulated that daily practices allowed people to define their identities and systematize knowledge (Malpas, 2005). He asserted that life embodies a synopsis of the cultural elements of the social community as there is no unified self (Taylor, 2008). Foucault also made a significant contribution in the debate on sexual egalitarianism; he argued that talking about sex creates sexual diversity. His analysis on sexual egalitarianism altered what was considered as tainted, abnormal or deviant sexual behaviour into a personal preference devoid of any attachments to moral pronouncements. Pierre Bourdieu is another prominent postmodern social theorist. His outstanding contribution in modernism lies in his analysis of post-structuralism. Bourdieu asserted that structural models that are manifested within the society should not be replaced rather they should be enriched (Lizardo, 2010). Bourdieu’s other contribution to postmodernism is his theory of practice whereby he holds that a coherent and unified theory does not exist. Instead, what is present is a body of highly varied writings by thinkers, who take up a loosely defined practice approach. How the theory relates to the Client On top of its influence on cultural fields such as religion, literary criticisms, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology, postmodernism has had a significant bearing on multiple works such as arts and aesthetics such as literature, drama, architecture, cinema, journalism, and design (Malpas, 2005). The theory of modernism is essential in assisting clients such as streamlining education sector, whereby teachers cease to be mere transmitters of knowledge but facilitators. In this case, teachers assist children to construct their own knowledge. Postmodernism is applied in counselling; postmodernism has had a significant influence on psychotherapy and the entire discipline of Psychology (Kvale, 1999). How the Theory relates to me as an Individual Personally, the theory relates to me; it helps me to appreciate the diverse developments in the arts and culture since mid twentieth century. Postmodernism provides insights concerning the emergence of diverse forms of social and political organization as well as economic organization within the society. Furthermore, the theory enables me to understand the need for radical transformation of the prevalent social, economic and political spheres that were common within modernity. In addition, the theory helps me to discern how social dynamics such as power influence human conceptualizations of the world. Similarly, the theory helps me to understand how the social dynamics affect the construction of knowledge. Conclusion Postmodernists explore diverse, multifaceted relationship of command, knowledge, and discourses emanating from struggles between different social groups. Postmodernism thought on knowledge stresses on aspects such as idealism, constructivism, relativism, pluralism, and scepticism. Postmodernism enhances self consciousness in cultural life by the propelling the prospects of decentralization thereby accelerating the relativity of values and identities. Foucault can be regarded as one of the images that relate to this theory. He attempted to show that what most people thought as enduring truths of human nature and society essentially vary all through the course of human history. Pierre Bourdieu is another prominent postmodern social theorist. His outstanding contribution in modernism lies in his analysis of post-structuralism. References Brown, N. & Szeman, I. (2000). Pierre Bourdieu: Fieldwork in culture. Oxford, UK: Rowman & Littlefield. Drolet, M. (2004). The postmodernism reader: Foundation texts. London, UK: Routledge. Hakutani, Y. (2002). Postmodernity and cross-culturalism. Cranbury, NJ: Rosemont. Kendall, D. (2011). Sociology in our times. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Kvale, S. (1999). Psychology and postmodernism. London, UK: Sage. Lizardo, O. (2010). Pierre Bourdieu as a post-cultural theorists. Cultural Sociology, 5(1): 1-22. Malpas, S. (2005). The postmodern. New York, NY: Routledge. Sim, S. (2011). The Routledge companion to postmodernism. New York, NY: Routledge. Taylor, F. (2008). Sociology understanding a diverse society. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. Taylor, V. & Winquist, C. (2001). Encyclopedia of postmodernism. New York, NY: Routledge. Read More