Race as a Social Construction - Essay Example

Race and Ethni What does it mean to say that race is a social construction? Research done over the past few decades has revealed that human genetic constructs do not naturally determine the human conception of racial grouping. Instead, racial and ethnic segregation is largely dependant on socialization. Socialization in this case is the process through which individuals acquire ideas from their immediate social surroundings (people). These ideas are highly subjective and pass from one generation to another. Subjectivity arises from the human nature in the sense that humans construct ideologies and other defining factors for their own personal interests. In this case, the idea of race is a form of differentiation, to identify with and separate from in regard to social groupings and the rewards and downsides that accompany either side one falls into; therefore, race is a social construct. 2. How is the social meaning of race the result of political struggles? Give at least two examples from the reading “Racial Formations” by Omi and Winant. During the invasion of African nations, Europeans undermined the African traditional religions and their difference in terms of color and culture because they viewed themselves more superior to theirs. With this mentality, they assigned the black race the title inferior for their own benefits such as enslaving them. By use of their superiority, they exploited Africans and financed the industrial revolution in their countries for political gains. The second example is in relation to the 19th century migration of Anglo-Saxons into America. A conflict emerged as to where to categorize them because much as they were foreigners they had a “white” complexion. The ultimate decision to categorize them as white has a very profound political connection. 3. Define and explain the significance for the adoption of OMB Directive No. 15 in 1976. The American government gave The Federal Integrity Commission on Education incentive to develop the OMB Directive No. 15. The FICE gave recommendations that, there should be five distinct racial groups namely, Asians and Pacific islanders, non-Hispanic blacks, Hispanics, non-Hispanic whites, and American Indians or Alaska natives. The most significant importance of OMB Directive No. 15 is that its five suggested ethnic groups now define racial categorization in America. The federal government, its contractors, and grantees apply these descriptions in their day to day activities. As most Americans fall within these five categories, it is now easier to state ones race in all types of forms official or otherwise. 4. What are the key points about the complex relationship between SES and race? Sociologists clearly draw a line of distinction between SES and race claiming that even though they are responsible for the disparities in health within the different races, they are both different entities. However, SES among the races accounts for the differences in health disparities among races. 5. What is the primary institutional mechanism of racism that is a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health? Racism has led to segregation. This segregation results in the minority or non dominant races confinement to poorer living areas, lesser paying jobs, more hazardous working conditions and a smaller window to express their grievances on the same. All the listed factors contribute directly or indirectly to health disparities. The social economic status of a race determines what types of health facilities they can acquire. Blacks have a lower social economic status than most whites. They are hence most likely to have inadequate or substandard healthcare. This leads to issues such as a higher mortality rate for the white folk in comparison to the black folk. 6. What are the four insights sociology, can provide in regard to the complex association between migration and health? The first insight is that the relationship between factors such as infant mortality, physical and mental health of immigrants in relation to their counterparts in their home countries and the original American occupants is complex. For instance in immigrant inhabited areas; there is a lower death rate because there are few old people and young children. Second, immigrant status in relation to social economic status affects the immigrants’ health disparity. The third insight, also in regard to health, is that risk factors and resources available to immigrants affect the health care they receive. The final insight is that immigrants have an effect on the health of their home origin counterparts. For instance, male Mexican immigrant father babies with normal birth weight unlike the other Mexicans males back at home. 7. Will the U.S. Move past the one-drop rule? If so, which model of racial hierarchy or equality do you feel we’ll adopt? If not, support your answer providing a possible future scenario of U.S. and a continued one-drop rule in the 21st century. The U.S will not move past the one-drop rule. This is because; all societies there have hierarchy for the sake of harmonious coexistence whereby there are superior people and inferiors. These hierarchies rules out the adoption of equality. In order to uphold the one-drop rule in the 21st century, the government needs to come up with racial subcategories that do not exclusively categorize one drop persons as white. I, therefore, agree with Habert J. Gass that society is going to be classified as either black or non-black, therefore, having a dual hierarchy. 8. Discuss the different criterion by which the U.S. federal government defines who is an American Indian. Explain how these various criteria help the U.S. to further its own economic, political, and cultural interests both in the past and today. There are two categories of Indians. Federally recognized tribes are those that are recognized by the federal government while state recognized tribes are those recognized by the respective states in which they reside. Recognizing tribes gives them autonomy, this way; government saves on governing costs because the Indians can govern themselves. They also put themselves in political favor of the Indians because they have given them autonomy and recognized their ethnic heritage and, therefore, a sense of freedom. 9. Discuss the pros and cons of a pan-Asian movement. Compare and contrast the movement with similar efforts regarding other groups (e.g. Latinos). Which do you believe is a better strategy – focusing on individual characteristics and groups or pooling resources together as a larger group or effort? This movement is beneficial because, it enhances solidarity within the Asian communities. However, it promotes the idea of stereotypes and hence enhances prejudices like racism. Through their solidarity, the Asians have been able to fight for their rights as American citizens; however, it creates some form of segregation. This is because pan Asianism goes beyond civil rights activism; the members construe to values that distinguish them from other races in society, and unlike western values, theirs are more rigid. Working as a group is better than working as an individual as seen in the case of NAACP movements in America. This group has given significant help to blacks, for instance fighting for the recognition of their civil rights. 10. Social political functions of the colorblind ideology: The color blind ideology is in effect aimed at the white population in the country. This ideology is targets the social and political aspects of society in these ways: first and foremost it reduces social stress for the whites. Through the color blind ideology, whites feel that they are liberated because there is now a rule against being racist. This creates a stress free environment for them and other races in society. It is necessary to note that this ideology still maintains white people’s privilege over other races. This is because they believe that the social economic privileges they enjoy stem from their hard work and not because they are white. On the political front, this ideology gives the population the feeling that the government has dealt with the issue of racism and all that remains is the role of race as a mere form of identification. 11. How does the American social structure impact blacks’ chances for wealth accumulation? Though it is possible for a black family to own a home in America, their assets do not accrue at a rate similar to those of white families. This is because the value of their housing units increases at a lower rate than the same units in white neighborhoods. The other reason is because blacks have a lower capability of investing beneficial financial endeavors because most of their assets cover consumables, their homes and their cars. Gender is crucial in the role of wealth accumulation. Although the process to include women in the wealth accumulation is so far successful, opportunities for women, especially black women are lower. Unsteady economic privilege and restricting rules to property ownership lessens black persons’ ability of efficiently accumulate wealth. 12. How does the racial hierarchy today vary regionally in the U.S.? What are the implications for the future of race relations? There are states that have a larger number non white population than white population. In such cases backs appear to be autonomous but in the real sense, whites silently dominate; the dominant group calls the shots. More and more minor races are discovering there potentials, but racism will not soon die out. It is, however, necessary to note that interaction between races in America has increased whether circumstantial or voluntary. 13. According to Blumer how does characterizing another racial group serve to define one’s own group? It forms a basis for comparison whereby individuals characterize their own group in relationship to the characteristics they ascribe to other groups in society. The racial identification one makes of themselves is in regard to a group. In the same light, racial groups coin their identities in relation to what another racial group is or is not. 14. Race as social and not an individual position. Discuss using two examples from history, current events, or personal experience. Racial prejudice according to Blumer is as a result of the relationship between the different racial groups in society. Racial prejudiced individuals have the comfort of mind that they belong to a racial group that has prejudice notions against the other racial group they, as an individual harbor prejudices. This need to identify with a group makes race a social and not an individual position. Racial prejudices are, therefore, not merely personal feelings of individuals but a reflection of how one group views another group in society. 15. Merton places Americans into four types of people based on their beliefs and actions regarding racial prejudice and discrimination. Which type of people are the most likely to reform society and how? The American creed asserts the equal human rights of all American citizens. In relation to the creed, Merton claims that there are four types of people. The first group encompasses all weather liberals who are neither prejudiced nor prone to discrimination by way of action and speech. In so doing, they fully adhere to the code of the creed. The fair weather liberals are individuals who do not themselves engage in prejudice acts. However, they support other people’s discriminatory acts if it is an easier way out or they stand to gain from it. Their support for discrimination is usually silent whereby they do not comment against the discriminator or on behalf of the discriminated. The fair weather illiberal is one who is racially prejudiced on the inside but will exhibit signs of a conformist of the creed to avoid sanctions that accompany behavior that undermines the creed. All weather illiberal is an out rightly prejudiced individual who is not afraid to show it despite the implied sanctions that accompany such disregard of the creed. The most likely group to reform society is all weather liberals. This is due to their potential to create a positive social environment where individuals from other groups can find it rewarding to conform to the creed. 16. Explain the significance of the 1944 Mohamed Mohriez immigration case. Define the phrase, “secret evidence” and how it relates to issues of immigration. The Mohamed Mohriez case enabled the Arabs in America to be recognized as free white individuals. This meant that once they acquire citizenships they could also enjoy the rights and privileges equal to other American citizens. However, this case also reveals that the rules and other litigations made by the American government in regard to races and the privileges they could be afforded are purely political. At around 1944, America wanted to get a share of the oil reserves in Arabian countries. It was, therefore, paramount that the appease the Arabian governments even if it meant bending and amending rules that had governed racial lines for decades. Secret evidence was a ploy adopted by the American government in a bid to keep terrorism. The immigrant courts can press charges against an immigrant if their actions may promote terrorism or infringe on their acquired citizenship. The court can instigate the deportation of the accused individual. In these cases, the courts can use evidence that defendants cannot examine even under advisor ship of their attorney hence secret evidence. It is imperative to note that this did not ease the constrictions of migration, seeing as it was until 1965 that immigration was truly possible. 17. What was/is the role of urban renewal in perpetuating race inequality, according to Lipsitz? Urban renewal has a lot to do with whiteness that is “negro problem” now termed the “white problem”. The whites have a silent hold over the public and in a subtle way still propagate their superiority, therefore, the perpetuation of inequality. Means used to propagate these inequalities include the entertainment and advertisement industry whereby, the actors present scenes where all races are coexisting in harmony but still the white race maintains a superior role over all the rest. This is a ploy to water dawn the severances of racism, and all that remains is superior races and inferior races. 18. Immigrant policies (1980 – 1990) how did they harmed minorities? Examples of immigrant policies around 1980-1990 include the refugee act of 1980, immigration reform and control act 1986 and the immigration act of 1990. This acts significantly reduced the number of immigrants to the United States by close to 50%. This was as a result of the adoption of new steep policies to reduce the number of people legible for citizenship in regard to these new policies. Other rights and privileges in regard to their status as immigrants got more restrictions making the living conditions hard. These rules also affected already existing immigrants. For instance, the secret evidence ploy increased the number of deportations during this period. For instance, the eight students in the Los Angles around 1987 distributing pamphlets that could be accessed even in libraries. These deportations came after they had been under investigation for a long time and no incriminating evidence found. 19. Poverty and segregated, isolated neighborhoods? Discuss some of Massey’s suggestions to improve the situation. The role of segregation is to lock people out when it comes to opportunities that the larger society has to offer. There are social economic discrepancies and an extremely large gap between those in the privileged side of the segregation line. This confinement affects factors such as health, education and political say whereby the segregated minorities have poor health conditions, lower standards of education and even lesser political representation as seen in the small number of minorities is the senate and congress. Aside from human rights groups, there is the option of civic education aimed at the segregated individuals. The segregated individuals should also be afforded better education facilities to ensure that, through education, they can better their lives. 20. Pollution and environmental degradation in regards to racial apartheid and the role of government agencies and their policies. Racial apartheid in the U.S confines lesser races such as Mexicans and blacks to the potentially hazardous environments that are more prone to pollution. The policies set up to control pollution in the states do not have full effect in these areas. Authorities are more relaxed, and the population of the lesser races has more contentious issues to address that they sideline the issue of pollution. Even in addressing pollution in the country, the government uses the segregated minorities as scapegoats whereby dumpsites are closer to the habitats of the minorities than they are to the privileged majority. In the work environment, the minority races are more likely to work in areas prone to pollution and be exposed to more pollutant toxics than the other races. Works Cited Gallagher, Charles A. Rethinking the Color Line: readings in race and ethnicity. New York: La sale University, 2008. Read More