Human sexuality - Assignment Example

? Sociology Sociology Question 1a) If there is one thing that has known variations, it is the things that would draw individuals to each other when starting relationships. Many people believe that as far as relationships are concerned, individuals with shared values or characteristics will most likely be attracted to each other. Others hold the opinion that individuals who are too much alike would not last long as a couple and therefore people tend to look for those that complement them. In quite a number of cases however, individuals are attracted to those people who are different from them since they seek complementary traits in the individual. One thing that you will acknowledge is that as much as these two arguments may look contradictory, they are actually in agreement with each other. However, the notion that likes attract carries more weight. To begin with, research has shown that individuals are attracted to people that they know and are familiar with. Most friendships are borne once people become familiar with each other in which case the possibility of getting attracted increases. There is no uniformity n the timeframe within which familiarity breeds. Take for example individuals who have a past of abuse. They will believe that abuse is a usual way of life and are therefore likely to be drawn to each other. Since there is a dualistic belief in abuse, they will take different roles in the relationship where one becomes the victim and the other the victimizer. In essence, individual who have in the past taken physical abuse would find it easy to take up the victim’s role while the other one takes the victimizer. Attraction theory states that, when choosing mates, individuals try to compare the likely mate with those that one is familiar with. An individual would be likely to look for traits resembling those of his mother, father, brother, close friend etc. In addition, the personal traits, religion, beliefs and even socio-economic classes play a major role in the choice of a partner. Learned individuals are always likely to look for mates who are learned as well. Rarely will you see a son of a monarch going for a commoner’s girl. Part 2) Mate selection is distinctive among organisms. For quite a long time, there have been attempts to explain the criteria used by humans to choose their mates. One theory that explains this is the attraction theory. While it insinuates that there is a thin line between the opposites-attract and the likes-attract, it acknowledges that individuals are more or less drawn to people that they are familiar with or people with whom they can identify with. People look at things like personal traits, beliefs, religion etc, when choosing their mates. More often than not, they will tend to draw comparison between their potential mates and the individuals that they have known in their lives such as close family members, friends etc. This however does not undermine the fact that other people will look for mates whose characteristics are completely different from theirs. This is all in an attempt to complement their lives or fill the void that they may feel. Question 1b) Variations between data generated by varied research bodies have been quite a common phenomenon. It is often difficult to determine which body could have been more accurate or even whether there was a mistake in the investigations done. However, variations inn research data can be explained by the methods used in undertaking it. In the case of missing children, the use of a qualitative or quantitative research method could have brought about the difference. The qualitative research method was aimed at creating the impression that something was terribly wrong and therefore calls for action. In the case of FBI investigation or research, quantitative research could have been done all with the aim of quelling the fears about such a large magnitude of the problem. In essence they were aimed at coming up with numerical data on the same. The information so gathered could then be analyzed in subjective, diagnostic, impressionistic or subjective manner. Testament to this is the fact that the initial results were expressed in form of images pasted on the milk packets etc. The FBI on its part produced information in form of numbers. Extra Credit 1c) Adolescence has always been taken as the stage that marks the difference between childhood and adulthood. More often than not, people have believed that it really is a natural biological stage. However, quite a number of questions have been raised as to this assumption with many sociologists saying that adolescence is a social construction. By painting adolescence as a social construct, sociologists question the claims that adolescence can be principally understood through psychology and biology. They insinuate that adolescence is a social and cultural category in which one can interpret and make the meaning of facts pertaining to the youth. There are variations as to the meaning of adolescence in varied cultures as well as varied historical moments. In essence, meanings attached to adolescence are not random but relate to the broader material as well as symbolic power struggles. The social meaning of adolescence emanate from specific economic, political and socio-historic realities that they came from. As illustrated by history of origins of adolescence, the facts of adolescence, its understanding in relation to reform and middle-level education and its development would only be understood as a component of social order from which the claims have been made. Consequently, this means that the claims borrow from historical and political claims since they presume certain conflicts, hierarchies and social values. By looking at the historical origins of adolescence, one would acknowledge that the phenomenon occurred only recently. It is portended that as a social group, adolescence came about in the 1800s. In fact, scholars note that adolescence was recognized as a “subculture” separate from the typical adult culture in the 20th century. Adolescence emerged as a unique social group in the resulted from changes that took place due to industrial revolution. These included urbanization, industrialization, and institutionalization of every cultural aspect and immigration of youths from rural areas to the cities in search of work. The sociological changes led to formation of the adolescence as a distinct group of people who are not considered children anymore but do not have the privileges, powers and responsibilities of adulthood. Question 2a) While there may be obvious differences between ethnocentrism, stereotyping and deviance, they have a common function in the human social behavior. The common function would only be determined by looking at their definitions. Stereotyping refers to the learned form of categorizing and labeling other people based on assumptions or inaccurate information rather than factual knowledge. In essence, it is de-legitimization of other groups of people. The beliefs thus formed would be downgrading other groups aiming at excluding from the human groups considered to be operating within the boundaries of acceptable values and norms. Ethnocentrism refers to judging another culture based on our own cultural system. An ethnocentric individual would be using his or her cultural norms to generalize about another person’s customs and norms. Deviance on its part refers to the tendencies or behaviors of an individual that defy what is generally accepted as normal. It signifies a deviation from what is considered normal in a particular society. As you would acknowledge, all these categorizations tend to define us in one way or another. We are only in a position to de fine ourselves by looking at what we considered acceptable and what we disapprove of. These processes allow us to determine our stand on particular issues and more so the things that we consider to be normal to us. It is natural for human beings to gauge themselves or determine where they stand in the society of humankind. This would only be aided by relativity in which case a group of people would draw comparisons and contrast themselves with others in order to determine their position in the society. Question 2b) In the common language, deviance means straying from a generally accepted path. Quite a large number of sociological definitions pertaining to the word simply elaborate that deviance refers to the areas or aspects that are not in line with norms or expectations of particular social groups. It is important to acknowledge that deviance maybe rewarded, punished, or just accepted without punishment or reward. As much as deviance is more often than not viewed as negative in nature, several positive aspects make it quite a desirable phenomenon. To begin with, social deviance is known to encourage social change. In quite a number of instances, deviance starts wars, ends them and even modifies the laws. It has the capacity to bring individuals together, tear them apart and even save lives. In most of the repressive societies, individuals who did not agree with the way things were being done rebelled against the system, leading to a complete change and a better life. In addition, deviance always speaks of creativity. It is only when individuals move away from the normal way of life and envisions the “abnormal” and think of how to bring about the results that any form of creativity would be bound to exist. Creativity has been credited with better ways and enhanced quality of life. Question 3a) The media has been a very important component of the society since time immemorial. With the technological advancement that has been witnessed in the recent times, it has continued to infiltrate every sphere of our lives. Quite a large number of people spend innumerable hours glued to varied types of media including computers, TVs etc. There have been concerns as to the effects of images and communicated words on young children. Scientists have always tried to underline the notion that children would be more adept at imitating the things that they saw others doing. In explaining the effects of the mass media on the children, two theories have emerged namely conflict theory and the functionalist theory. Functionalism underlines .the notion that all the components of the society are very necessary for its proper functioning. In essence, the functionalist theory indicates that the varied groups that emerge in the society come about in an effort to satisfy the wants of the society. The conflict theory however looks at the society as a continued struggle between the various classes of people i.e. the non-powerful and the powerful. The powerful in the society make major decisions and have the same socio-economic background. The non-powerful however remain docile in the society. With the underpowered realizing that they are holding the short end of the stick, they would be likely to rebel thereby creating tension. As pertaining to the effects of the mass media on the children, the functionalist theory insinuates that as much as there may be a negative effect on the communication and behavior of the children, it is more or less necessary for the stability of the society since these images are aimed at satisfying a particular want. On the other hand, conflict theorists view the use of mass media as a way of the powerful seeking to have greater control over the non-powerful in which case they are trying to imbue in them their way of living as well as their behavior. This would be likely to raise questions among the youth as to the divisions in the society thereby creating conflicts among the varied people. The main difference between the two theories is that, the functionalist theory tends to explain what has already happened while the conflict theory explains or predicts what may happen in the future. Question 3b) Social stratification has been labeled as one of the main causes of a set of relational inequalities not only in the social aspect but also in the ideological, political and economic dimensions. It refers to a system in which individuals rank and even evaluate one another. Based on the evaluations, the individuals would be rewarded with authority, power, prestige and more wealth. The society is categorized in three parts namely the lower class, middle class and the upper class. In this case, the society is organized in a number of levels. For the astronauts stranded in the earth like steroid, stratification will result in social disparity where wealth and power will be monopolized by individuals in a particular stratum. This will therefore affect the life chances, the prestige and lifestyle, thereby creating a depression and emotional stress for individuals in the lower stratum due to unequal access to power, wealth and prestige. Social stratification would also cause large differences between individuals in terms of incomes as well as many measures relating to social positions, psychological well-being, health and education. Due to the disparity in the astronauts, chaos would result in which case development and progress would be unlikely. Authority is political power that all individuals have subject to their position in the society. In this case, it may be channeled away from or to an individual. However, stratification of the individuals in the earth-like steroid would be likely to cause a dramatic shift to the flow and balance of power. The higher the concentration of the power structure the greater the severity of the inequalities between the astronauts. The danger does not lie in the possibility of a revolution but rather in the greater coercive and controlling capacity of the power structure. While it may be feared that the people will fight that system, the danger lies in the fact that they will abandon it, trying to run away from the miserable lives through debauchery and drugs, engaging in crime just taking what is necessary or even just commit suicide as an escape route. Question 4a) Parenting contracts have been put forward as one of the ways in which one of the major problems of our times could be solved. This is as pertaining to parenting and the capability of parents to guide their children to live in a certain manner. In quite a number of cases, parents are unable to have their own children in which case they will look for other people to bear children for them. This is the basis of the sci-fi story on Adamsville. In this case, surrogate mothers would be artificially inseminated. They also sign contracts indicating their obligations as well as those of intended parents. Quite a number of advantages and disadvantages can be had as far as contract parenting is concerned making it quite a key decision. Advantages Contract parenting allows surrogate mothers to fulfill a couple’s desires for children while she receives compensation for the services. Quite a number of parents who are unable to have their own kids have benefited from contract parenting. Contract parenting would also come also come with some monetary gain for the surrogate mother. The intended parents are expected to foot every cost of the arrangement including compensation of the surrogate mother for medical bills, lost work, legal documents etc. Parenting contracts are more preferable than adoption since the child will be genetically related to the intended parents. Disadvantages As much as contract parenting gives childless couples to know parenthood, there have always been questions whether it amounts to the sale of children. This is irrespective of the fact that the child is essentially a product of the intended parents. As much as there is a contract in existence, there are legal issues pertaining to a case where surrogate mothers change their minds about giving up the children to the intended parents. There is also the unpredictable nature of the pregnancies not to mention the fact that problems would crop up in case the pregnancy is not carried to full term or other complications crop up. Parenting contracts also come at a very high cost on the side of intended parents where they are expected to compensate for the maternity clothes, lost work, cater for legal documents and medical bills. Question 4b) The western culture has changed almost every aspect of many societies including the family units. For quite a number of societies, the family unit was more or less extended to incorporate parents, uncles, aunties and grandparents, nephews, nieces, cousins all of whom lived in a particular homestead and therefore considered part of the family. The western culture however brought in the nuclear family units that consist of the father, mother and children only. This has been both advantageous and disadvantageous. Advantages In extended families, even when the parents had little time to watch over their kids or teach them their languages and history, the extended family always came in handy and took over the role. On the same note, discipline was highly upheld since any member of the extended family had the right to discipline the kids if they went wrong in their presence. This however is not the case in nuclear families. In extended families, the children have much more exposure and experience as compared to nuclear families. This is because you will be learning diverse lessons from different people unlike in nuclear units where the parents will technically be the only source of knowledge. Extended families imbue in the child a sense of oneness with others since they are taught to be cooperative and more caring. This therefore produces great leaders in the society. Disadvantages Extended families curtailed privacy due to the large number of people. In this case, even the things that demand privacy became more difficult to be done. Decision-making is also seen as better in nuclear families as compared to extended families. In most cases, free will was unheard off in many extended families since decisions made by the heads of the family were binding and had to be obeyed. In addition, conflicts and quarrels were inevitable. Quite evidently, children were the greatest losers in as far as introduction of nuclear families are concerned. They no longer could gain diverse knowledge or even learn diverse skills from the extended members of the family. When their parents are not available, they would be likely to get lonely and depressed. Parents however minutely gained in the sense that they had more free will and a hand as far as decision-making is concerned. Question 5a) McDonalds is one of the most popular food chains in the world. As one of the most successful food chains, it is no wonder that a study as to the way the institution is run has been done. The word McDonaldization has been coined to express the steady institutionalization and increased entrenchment of the structure and logic of McDonald’s in all spheres of crucial activities. This chain epitomizes insistent and scandalous phenomenon, McDonaldization that envisages the varied ways in which its principles operate in varied social settings. The structural changes are accelerated by a number of factors including aggressive search for economic interests, pursuing McDonaldization as a goal and the attunement of McDonaldization to particular changes occurring in the society such as expanding needs, technological changes, working parents as well as increased mobility. Essentially, McDonaldization operates within four interconnected doctrines or philosophies. These are increasing efficiency, enhanced calculability, predictability as well as control. These same things characterize bureaucratization. In McDonaldized society, there is always pressure for increased efficiency where optimum means of production are sought for a particular end. This calls for enhanced calculability where quantity is emphasized instead of quality. This result in predictability where precise, non-human and programmable technologies are used more. The pursuit of standardization, systematization, scientific management, consistency as well as methodological operation is geared towards controlling people more. Max Weber a model of rationalization developed bureaucracy. In the same way, McDonalds as a fast food restaurant is essentially McDonaldization’s paradigm. Both of them underline a system thriving in elimination of irrationality, inefficiency, unpredictability and uncertainty. Scholars insinuate that McDonaldization does not only extend from rationalization but is actually an extreme version of the same. George Ritzer calls it a Quantum leap in rationalization process. However, quite a large number of things imposed by or underlining McDonaldization border on irrational tendencies. In its pursuit of greater efficiency, more predictability, rationality and certainty, McDonaldization advocates for the use of replacement of the human power with non-human technology. Of course, this is very beneficial for the organization as far as lowering its costs and increasing profitability is concerned. The human beings however have learn new techniques, master new technologies and, figure out other functions, memorize other numbers and be updated about upgraded software. This implies that the business would have to pay quite high prices to operate in an efficient manner. Moreover, almost no thinking or skill is required of the workers in a McDonaldized society since there would be increased dependence on as well as subordination to machines. Irrationality of the McDonaldization is underlined by the likelihood that people will at one time be unable to control the system but rather be controlled by it. In rationalized settings that McDonaldization imposes, people do not act as human beings but rather as variables of a system. Question 5b) The question on homelessness has always been a tricky one. The thought that one could be lacking a place to call home is definitely emotion provoking. Unfortunately, there have been a lot of assumptions and theories pertaining to homelessness and even the composition of the homeless. It has always been thought that all or most of the homeless people are mentally ill. However, the numbers of the mentally ill and homeless people have been greatly distorted. The though that most of the homeless people are mentally ill emanates from the misguided notion that people in their right minds would be in a position to find home of whatever form. It is thought that the mentally sound people would find the government built houses and occupy them. This however does not take into consideration the fact that information about such amenities is limited. In addition, there is always the though that the mentally sound people would be in a position to find a job and at least afford a decent home. One thing that you should note is that a number of the homeless people actually do have jobs but has lost his or her home due to foreclosures. Research shows that the greater portion of the homeless people is actually substance abusers. Homeless individuals with issues of substance abuse take up the greatest percentage of the homeless people seen living in shelters. While the numbers of mentally ill homeless people may be distorted, most of the homeless substance abusers have mental illnesses too. Question 6a) The interconnected nature of human beings has never been in question since time immemorial. It has always been noted that not only do we need other people for our own self-actualization or even fulfilling some basic needs but also to determine whom we are. More often than not, people segregate or congregate by being with others with whom they share some ideas. Be it in clubs, raves, churches, gangs or chat rooms, people will hang out with individuals who they think share a common interest or they have something in common. It is always destabilizing and even scary to think of engaging with individuals that are different from us. Most of us will feel safer and trust more when with individuals who share our ideals. The issue pertaining to others reminding us is best exemplified by the fact that, the behaviors or ideals of others allow us to draw similarities or make comparisons. More often than not, we will look at a particular tendency in terms of whether we stand for it or we do not approve of it. Having in mind that our character defines us, drawing comparison from the character of other individuals allows us to determine what we stand for. The characters that we abhor would also be manifested by our disapproval of other people’s character or behavior. One of the major sociological theories underlining this tendency is the functionalist theory by Karl Marx. In this theory, he insinuated that all the various components of the society are important in one way or another including the seemingly negative ones since they tend to satisfy a particular want in the society leading to enhanced stability. Question 6b) If there is one thing that defines human beings, then it is the capacity to communicate ideas and events. This is done by the use of language. In essence, scholars term language as a distinctively human gift. Every time one studies language, he or she would in essence be uncovering what makes individuals human or peeking at the epitome of the human nature. Other animals have their own system of communication for example; bees have elaborate system of communication in which they tell each other how to move from their hives to pollen sources. Dogs and cats can even master the names we give them and can read the tone of our voice as well as our gestures. Some birds are in a position to imitate the human speech while monkeys use particular calls to alert one another on the predators whether an eagle, leopard or snakes. However, human language is not limited to such fundamental or basic communication. In essence, we have the capacity to undertake symbolic thinking. Symbols refer to signs that are in essence shorthand or stand-in for a particular thing that they are not. For example, a Christian crosses represents particular practices and beliefs. In this case, when a word is mentioned, it would conjure up images of certain things. Words are essentially symbols in the sense that they represent of stand-in for concepts or images which they are randomly paired with. For human beings, language goes beyond sets of pairings between concepts and sounds (gestures, visual images). Of particular importance is that, human beings can recognize symbol’s patterns in which case they are in a position to combine words in order to pass on complex messages. However, there are particular aspects of our language that could land us in problem more so if it is not used carefully. It is worth noting that there are between 3000 and 5000 languages used in the world. As you will acknowledge, language is subjective to the individuals who are using it. In this case, the real meaning and intensity of a particular word would only be measured from real experiences rather than by description, meaning that a word will only carry the meaning that the context allows it to. Given the multiplicity of the languages used in the world, a particular word would be likely to carry a different meaning to different people. In this case, therefore, as much as languages make communication an easy affair, it has the potential of increasing communication gaps as well as misunderstanding due to the varied contexts. This therefore increases conflict between human beings. Question 7) Part A: Race or racism has been quite a widespread phenomenon more so in the western countries. It has also undergone quite a significant revolution throughout the history of scientific analysis. However, recent developments have indicated that not only is its disappearance inevitable but already taking place. For quite some time, Americans gotten used to having their country considered a racist society. While the media have generally accepted this view, it has produced feelings of cultural despair pertaining to the likelihood of racial progress. There is definitely little agreement as to the definition of racism, its origin and whether it is possible to be eliminated. Racism is in essence a western phenomenon that arose when the first European people encountered with the non-westerners. This began in the 17th century in the period of slave trade. However, in the 19th century, there were civil rights movements and liberal crusades that led to the incorporation of many rights that were never possible in the past. Globalization and increased communication has also continued to quell racism having in mind that the seemingly minority groups have in quite a number of instances shown to perform quite well. The need for cooperation between the varied groups of people and the interdependence of countries has also eliminated the barriers that may have been imposed by the racism. These factors definitely speak of the impending end of racism. On the same note, while racism may become a variation of ethnicity, it is recognized that ethnicity will also disappear with time. Going by the varied legislations made in the recent past prohibiting discrimination based on color, race, gender, religion, language, nationality, political or other beliefs, social origin and family relations, the end of ethnicity is nigh. These legislations include the law on sanctions, law on civil servants, law on citizen’s associations and foundations, and the law on political parties, all of which argue against ethnic intolerance and other forms of discrimination. Part B: Similarities between concepts of race and concepts of gender and androgyny Race and gender have been two of the most popular basis of discrimination. Racism is the discrimination of an individual based on the color of his or her skin or even the race. The phenomenon is quite popular in the western world more so between the whites and the colored people. Androgyny however is used to describe a situation where an individual has both feminine and masculine characteristics in which case it would be difficult to classify such a person as either male or female. This could be as regards fashion, sexual lifestyle, biologically inter-sexed physicality as well as sexual identity. Gender discrimination would therefore mean intolerance to individuals based on their sex. There are stark differences between the concept of gender and androgyny and the concept of race. Race refers only to an individual’s genetic history as well as the visible physical characteristics. These characteristics are deemed as separate and unique from those of other races. You will acknowledge however that, human beings are 99% similar genetically irrespective of their races. Gender however is the largest difference that exists between human beings. Race being a product of history is more or less nurtured. This is however not the case with gender since it is an act of nature. One of the striking differences between race and gender is centered on whether the concepts underline any real biological variations between individuals. Many observers are bound to consider gender as real due to the predisposing reality of natural differences between individuals of two sexes. This is however not true of different races. Modern scholars agree that race is not derived from real biological variations between individuals of varied races. They however agree that there is underlying biological difference that distinguishes men from women apart from the cultural and social constructs. References Sally, O. (2000). Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination The Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Read More