Forms of Global Resistance - Coursework Example

Forms of Global Resistance Name: Institution: Introduction Modern globalization took its current shape in the 19th century. The rise of industrialization enabled the production of cheap household items through utilization of the economies of scale. The rapidly growing population created sufficient demand for the goods. The first and second opium wars opened opportunities of foreign trade in china while the conquering of India by the British widened the market for European products due to the high population in the region. The conquering of the new parts of the world by European nations enabled the exploitation of resources for their industries, which translated into a higher production capacity of capacities for the global market. Over the years, the global population received globalization positively and embraced the numerous benefits it offered. The global market became more competitive and the producers had to upgrade their products to maintain their customers. The countries with better technology could offer better commodities at lower prices hence gained more customer base and generated high revenue from the global trade. Some countries such as African countries specialized in selling of agricultural products in the global market since they could produce it at low costs due to the abundant cheap labor available. The rich countries became richer due to their comparative advantage while the developing nations grew at a decreasing rate. This economic imbalance created by international trade raised questions as to the benefits of globalization. It evidently turned out that globalization had its shortcomings despite having numerous benefits to the parties involved. Globalization created a global village through enhancement of the communication technology to enable communication of people in different physical locations. This led to the high level of reliance on technology for communication, which broke down the traditional society where people communicated on a one-on-one basis. This breakdown has triggered many negative reactions from the members of the society who feel that globalization presents itself as a form of slavery to the people and interferes with the natural order of the society. Most religious organization felt that globalization interfered with their objective of connecting people to God and nature. Social movements also felt threatened since globalization focused to abolishing the traditional order in society where people held one-on-one conversations and held physical meetings. Society comprised of diverse people who played different roles and had equal importance. Globalization promotes individualism and enhances a high level of competition between the members of the society. Another aspect of globalization that triggers opposition focuses on the high level of industrialization resulting from globalization. Industrialization offers a variety of desired products that satisfy consumers. It also enables production of numerous commodities to satisfy the high level of demand globally. However, its negative impacts trigger a high level of resistance among the population. Generally, many reasons exist for the resistance of globalization in the society. Anti-consumerism Anti-consumerism forms part of the major movements that strongly oppose globalization. It refers to the resistance of excessive materialism and wastage of resources. It contradicts the aspect of consumerism that refers to excessive purchase and consumption of products. Anti-consumerism advocates for simple living and condemns materialism. It shows concern over the business organizations whose sole purpose involves attainment of economic goals at the expense of social, ethical, and environmental aspects. Ignorance of these concerns leads to anti-globalization, animal rights, and environmental activism. This form of resistance takes the form of both social and religious activism (Luis Fernandez, 2008 p.187). The religious view claims that materialism interferes with the natural connection between God and humankind and contributes to immorality. Francis of Assisi, a Christian known for his selfless nature, claimed that his simple life sourced its inspiration from God while Thomas Aquinas suggested that greed leads to sin. Mahatma Gandhi, a proposer of simple living also condemned excessive consumption and termed it as greed. The social activism on the other hand opposes materialism since it precedes pollution, poverty, economic inequality, environmental degradation, crime, and war (Lewis & Potter 2013 p.40). Anti-corporate activism suggests that large corporations pose a threat to authority of nations and the public. This is due to their influence on the governments and their introduction of false needs to the consumers. Some examples include invasive advertisement, guerilla marketing, and contribution to political elections among others. Anti-consumerism suggests that the main purpose of the existence of a business revolves around its responsibility towards its shareholders. Bernard Stigler argued that consumption instead of production rules modern capitalism, which destroys individualism. Anti-consumerism condemns advertisement since it influences the values of the cultural system of the people and sets standards that dictate what the society expects of its people (Kim Humphrey et al 2013 p.27). It matches materialism with social standards and portrays the ownership of the products as a promotion in the social class. Voluntary simplicity refers to the way of life rejecting overconsumption and materialism. It involves leading an extremely simple life also referred to as downshifting. It emerges from the realization of the planet degradation caused by modern consumption patterns. Overconsumption of commodities appears unethical due to the high level of needs and the scarcity of resources. Life’s meaning cannot solely depend on materialism and extravagance, which wastes the life of an individual. Simplicity proposes that one only needs so little to live well contrary to the modern lifestyle patterns. This approach aims at minimizing the amount of resources spent on the consumer goods. This minimizes the expenditure on consumer goods and services and focuses the resources on non-materialistic sources of satisfaction such as charity. This involves minimal working, less pay, low rate of consumption and more time for personal endeavors. This guarantees a person more freedom and energy to utilize in community engagements, personal growth, intellectual projects, spiritual growth, love, pleasure, relaxation, and political participation among others (Humphrey et al 2013 p.29). Improvement of personal relationships results due to the incremental commitment in terms of time and other resources. The alternative activities normally do not rely on money for their execution. This approach bases its assumptions on the idea that humans can live happy and fulfilling lives while consuming only a share of equitable and sustainable resources. This forms the basis of the ‘quiet revolution’. This philosophy of life measures personal and social growth in terms of improvement in social relationships, intellectual, spiritual, and aesthetic potentials in contrary to the normal measurements in terms of wealth and status. It relates to outward simplicity and inward richness. According to David Shi, the historian of simplicity movement, the fundamental attributes of simplicity include immense respect for nature, suspicion of luxurious products, self-sufficiency, conscientious consumption, and a sense of responsibility for natural resources. He referred to voluntary simplicity as the ‘enlightened material restraint’. Voluntary simplicity however does not involve renouncing the benefits of science and technology, self-righteousness or poverty living (Olupona 2004 p.212). Anyone can adopt voluntary simplicity way of life since it focuses on reevaluation of the relationship with consumption commodities and setting the limits. This life does not only attract saints and hippies but accommodates anyone interested in transforming their way of life by accommodating simplicity and self-sufficiency. Another social movement that opposes consumerism is the Anarcho-primitivism. It proposes a world free from domination and civilization. It opposes the state setups and the governmental institutions that govern the states. They claim this causes oppression on the people and eliminates the natural connection of man to nature. Civilization has eroded the freedom of man due to the high standards of domestication that the society should conform. They propose primitivism that seeks to liberate people from the slavery of the fast moving modernization (Olupona 2004 p.201). This movement involves extreme anti consumerism where the members oppose the modern lifestyle of consumerism. They propose a primitivism way of life that involves denouncing any aspect of modernity. This includes rejection of modern commodities and technology. The primitivism way of life contributes to the simplicity proposed by anti-consumerists since the anarcho-primitivism propose adoption of an extremely simply life of hunters and gatherers. Rejection of technology also contributes to the basics of a simple life through focusing on cultivating human relations and abandoning the obsessive human-product relationships. It proposes increased connection to nature, which brings fulfillment. According to Zerzan, modern life involves oppression and psychological torture on the idea of scarcity. He rejects the states, governmental institutions, and various dominations. He believes in a ‘free world’ without any kind of rules (Olupona 2004 p.205). His works suggests that life before civilization i.e. Alienation and domestication, the human life was full of health, leisure, and intimacy with nature. It relies on the dualism of primitivism and civilization. The proposed primitivism life, hunter-gatherer way of life, involves absence of any kind of domestication including that of crops and animals. The ‘future primitivism’ involves embracing the wild and rejecting any kind of alienation in the society. A crucial aspect of this suggestion is the face-to-face interaction of the people. This calls for decentralization and social interactions of the people within the same locality. Zerzan also suggests the destruction of technology and puts emphasis on the gadgets that control man and those that he can control. He claims technology possesses power over its users that results to alienation, symbiotic thought and domestication. Anarcho-primitivism proposes abandonment of technology and civilization in general (Olupona 2004 p. 211). Globalization on the other hand is all about civilization, use of modern technology and contemporary trends. It involves the use of modern technology and high level of interaction of people across the globe. Cultural exchange largely results from globalization. Heavy reliance on technology is inevitable since it forms the basis of communication for people in different locations. Ease of communication between people in different locations causes the breakdown of face-to-face communication networks. It leaves people with minimal time to connect with other people and their environment. Anarcho-primitivism strongly proposes the connection to nature which globalization does not support. It also proposes primitivism i.e. Non-alienation and lack of domestication. Globalization is the major contributor to modernization that the movement strongly opposes. Self-sufficiency is a widely used term by economists when describing the ideal economy of developing nations particularly Africa David Held, (McGrew 2007 p.111). It involves the nations seeking ways of being self-reliant and not depending on aid from developed nations. Dr Moghalu, Deputy Governor of the Central Bank of Nigeria and an African economist, suggested that the two reasons why Africa lags behind in development includes globalization and the lack of worldview outlook in designing their economy and politics. He proposes self-sufficiency and condemns the influence of globalization that interferes with the development of a nation. He termed the effects of globalization as ‘oppressive dominance’. Innovation holds the key to Africa’s success, which would help in setting the continent apart from other continents. This would uplift the poor nations to the same technological and educational level as richer nations. Similarly, simple living promotes the aspect of self-sufficiency and sustainability. It involves a life dictated by what one needs rather than what they want. This reduces the amount of commodities that one consumes by curbing excessive demand on commodities. The famous proponent of simple living and philosopher, Mahatma Gandhi, said that the world contains enough resources to meet everyone’s needs but not enough to satisfy everyone’s greed. This means that if everyone lived a life of simplicity, the available resources would satisfy everyone’s needs (McGrew 2007 p.151). Since people naturally want more than they need, this leads to a scenario of scarcity. The competition for scarce resources triggers the price adjustments to make only the rich afford commodities while the poor continue to live in poverty. Inequality therefore results and disharmony creeps in since the rich gain more social status while the poor become insignificant. Freeganism involves eating discarded food instead of fresh food. This movement forms part of the anti-consumerism ideology that opposes excessive consumption. The freegans seek living strategies that do not entirely depend entirely on the conventional economy and extreme consumption (Miller et al 2009 p.289). The ideology of Freeganism bases its assumptions on community living, social concern, freedom, cooperation, and generosity. They also oppose materialism, competition, conformity, greed, and moral apathy. The movement traces its roots in 1990s catalyzed by the environmental and anti-globalization movements. The word emerged from a combination of the words ‘free’ and ‘vegan’. It also includes aspects of Diggers, the anarchist theatre group based in San Francisco in 1960s that practiced distribution of rescued food. The ideology involves descriptions of dumpster living, wild foraging, plate scraping, gardening, employee frauds, theft as alternative modes of acquiring food. Supporters of Freeganism possess divergent reasons for offering their support, which include religion, environmental and anti-capitalism reasons. Other subsequent practices included are precycling, water conservation, re-use of goods and solar energy. Freeganism opposes consumerism since it believes the society produces enough waste to satisfy their needs instead of acquiring new products (Poyourow 2005 p.345). This contributes environmental conservation through eliminating excess waste. In addition to using the rescued food for personal consumption, the freegans give them out freely and share with the community. They believe wastage emerges from the ideals set by mass consumerism that highly contribute to massive misuse of resources. This makes the society not interested in contributing to the community. Freegans lead a life of ‘dumpster living’ or ‘skipitarianism’ which simply means pulling food from the trash cans. Retail stores throw away food in good condition when it approaches the end of its shelf life. The freegans acquire this food since its saves them the money they would have spent on the food (Veltmeyer 2004 p.165). They claim his saves the world resources, disregard for animal rights, and cause urban sprawl. The rescue food feeds the animals and people who would otherwise go hungry. Freeganism however does not confine its members to rescuing food. They rescue any items for recycling such as power tools needing minimal repairs and the aluminum cans collected for sale. They move around with long poles for moving the items around. The rescued food includes food discarded by producers for not reaching acceptable standards for example supermarkets and edible offal rejects fruits and vegetables that are too small. Resources of the dumpsters mostly originate from pharmacies and grocery stores waste materials. Freeganism faces opposition from the society of developed nations due to their practices considered a taboo. They face harassment from law enforcement agencies due to their poor sanitation practices. The society views garbage as dirt and overlook the possibility of turning it into something productive. The consumerism promoters always urge the consumers to acquire better products in order to upgrade their lives. Freeganism urges consumers to move in the opposite directions by settling for waste products (Forson & Counihan 2013 p.214). When disposing off food, most people do not consider the exchange value of the items but instead dispose them without second thoughts. Freegans take part in rescue gift exchanging. They also harvest medicinal plants and grown food instead of purchasing industrially manufactured items. This promotes community agriculture through reinforcing the individuals who wish to practices agriculture. They prepare community gardens and use rescued foods from the dumpsters as manure to fertilize the growing crops. This acts as another means of reusing the waste food collected from the bins. Vermaculture offers an alternative composite farming technique in the urban gardens to minimize the infrastructure and room required to the minimum. Guerilla gardens reclaim the ecological destruction caused by industrialization. They focus on native crops that are easily sustainable or forage wild crops. Those keeping dairy livestock employ alternative sources of energy such as biogas and occasionally live ‘off the grid’ entirely. Freegans promote the spirit of community sharing where they prepare delicious meals with rescued ingredients and serve them to the hungry in the streets (Counihan 2013 p.217). They condemn the society keenly focused on fighting wars while many people go hungry. They hold social events as a platform for sharing food, skills, goods, and presents. They have a temporary market called the free market where people exchange items outside the conventional money-based markets. They also advocate for sharing of travel resources with other members of the society. They hold bicycle programs that facilitate sharing of bicycles, restore broken bicycles, and train the community on doing their own bicycle repairs. This promotes the culture of resource and skill sharing, reusing old items and access to better modes of transport. Regifting involves giving away gifts received from another person. This prevents wastage incase the person offered the gift cannot consume it, he offers it to another person in need of the item. The rules involved in this practice involve not offering the gift to the original gift giver, rewrapping the gift and not using the gift before the regifting (Miller et al 2009 p.243). The freegans claim squatting promotes utilization of resources that would otherwise remain unused (Counihan 2013 p.219). Political movements incorporate squatting as a form of fight for equality and reforms. They advocate the practice in the claim that the available housing cannot cater for the current population. The homeless should not lack shelter when some buildings remain vacant. Buildings used for squatting eventually transform into community centers to house children and community organizations and used for environmental education. Freegans also oppose the notion of overworking for accumulating wealth. They instead focus on the acquisition of necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter. This further brings out the ant consumerism aspects of Freeganism. Working less ensures individuals only earn money to cater for their basic needs and not for leisure. Working appears as a waste of valuable time that family could use in bonding, volunteering work and taking part in other endeavors. Working abuses the people ecologically and socially. Working less however excludes no working at all since everyone must work for survival purposes. Veganism exists as a branch of Freeganism practice. It involves omission of dairy, eggs, and flesh in one’s diet. It also includes the avoidance of silk, wool, cosmetics, furs, and chemical components tested on animals. Freeganism mostly relates to environmentalism since its main objectives include reducing the amount of waste in the environment and reduce the environmental degradation resulting from manufacturing of goods (Veltmeyer 2004 p.167). Squatting ensures utilization of vacant buildings while dumpster living utilizes discarded food. Environmentalism presents itself as a religious awakening to desecrate the environment. Freeganism proposes simple living and minimization of waste in the environment (Veltmeyer 2004 p.171). Globalization promotes the culture of consumerism and encourages people to upgrade their products of consumption for a better life. This form of extravagance faces opposition from the freegans. High level of industrialization also contributes to environmental pollution, which attacks the core values of Freeganism. Environmental degradation occurs involuntarily as industries seek to overexploit available resources and increase their production capacity to cater for the high level of demand that results from the global market. Globalization also causes the breakdown of one-on-one communication lines, which causes disharmony in the society and promotes individualism. Freegans believe in the spirit of community sharing which globalization makes difficult since people rarely exchange physical commodities and the mostly shared commodity on the internet is information. Anti consumerism opposes the culture of commodity obsession in which people obtain their identity from products. They also oppose the resource overexploitation that degrades the environment. This has triggered the members of the society to obtain measures of conserving the environment one of the measures include agriculture. Agriculture promotes the self-sufficiency of the community as proposed by anti consumerism. Farming ensures replenishment of resources consumed by the community. Growing of subsistence crops ensures the community can get food to eat without having to visit the market to purchase them. The reliance on money for satisfaction of human needs reduces and hence the spirit of overworking dies. In the current society, countries focus so much on industrialization since it offers more benefits in terms of returns to scale. The focus on manufacturing eliminates the focus on the basics of production i.e. raw materials. Acquisition and consumption of raw materials becomes the major focus while the replenishment of used resources becomes a forgotten objective (Miller et al 2009 p.236). The ant consumerists therefore aim at reminding the people of the basics of life. Connection to nature forms part of their basic objectives where people are encouraged to care deeply about their environment. The religious proponents of anti consumerism propose that God’s intention of creating nature was for humankind to flourish in it. Since nature forms part of God’s creation, humans should respect and protect it since it forms part of their responsibilities. Farming promotes creation since it focuses on reproduction of plants and animals. Reproduction of resources ensures their supply covers the rising demand for them. Every consumer should take the responsibility of reproducing resources to replenish the supply of resources from which consumption goods emerge. If producers concentrated on replenishing their source of resources, this would solve the problem of overexploitation of resources. Some farming strategies involving community-based channels include community-based agriculture and permaculture (Miller et al 2009 p.275). Community based agriculture aims at promoting the local farmers through creating channels that enable easy and quick access of farm inputs for the farmers. It also offers marketing channels for the farmers’ produce to the local consumers. This further aims at ensuring sustainability of the community through producing enough produce to cover the local demand and reduces the reliance on external producers for agricultural products. Agriculture also involves agro forestry as proposed by permaculture. This involves plantation of trees in farms by the individual farmers alongside their agricultural products (Doherty et al 2002 p.137). This protects the environment through protecting the moisture from evaporation. Planting of more trees prevents the destruction of the ozone layer hence reduces global warming. Plants help in cleansing of the environment through elimination of the excess carbon dioxide in the air and releasing oxygen into the atmosphere. Post consumerism proposes that something has value without a price tag. It believes that people have power and they are not what they consume or own. It advocates for humanity and condemns the culture of obsessive consumption for vanity purposes. An individual cannot buy individuality or identity (Miller et al 2009 p.244). It emphasizes on accountability and responsibility that accompany freedom of choice in the commercial world. Post consumerism observes that people abuse the freedom of choice in consumption by casting most of their dollar votes on vanity. The west takes consumerism as a Religion that dictates their way of life and disregards the virtue of selflessness. It suggests that the dollar cannot take the place of God. The concept suggests that industrialization should stop the production of additional commodities since the available products are enough for the consumers. The production should cease since it causes unnecessary exploitation of arable land. The employment should channel earning to subsistence farmers in such a way that every individual can satisfy his family’s needs without subjection to anyone else i.e. self-employment. Jean Jacques Rousseau suggested that the rights of ownership originally involve acquisition through cultivation and labor. According to him, the legitimate proprietorship involves ownership through small-scale agriculture. Post-consumerism involves rejection of the obsessive consumerism culture and goes beyond anti consumerism through seeking to stop industrialization. It provokes the individual conscience of setting limits for consumption by consuming enough for the moment. Environmental degradation appears to be a prominent issue in consumerist societies. Globalization offers a wide market for both consumer and producer goods. This attracts potential producers into the market due to the assured wide market base (Doherty et al 2002 p.131). The level of industrialization therefore increases which leads to the increase in demand for raw materials. Overexploitation of resources then follows to cover the incremental commodities needed in the market. This scenario eventually causes environmental pollution and degradation hence global warming results. The governments therefore come up with policies that curb environmental pollution. The policies require industries to purify their waste products before releasing them into the environment. This helps eliminate the poisonous emissions into the environment that may cause the death of living organisms, inclusive of people. Penalizing industries and individuals involved in environmental pollution also forces more responsibility in maintenance of the environment. Anti consumerism proposes that taking care of the environment in which we exist in should be a natural instinct for every individual. Everyone should passionately take up the responsibility of protecting the environment without pressure from external forces. Excessive focus on consumption of commodities leaves people no time to notice the people and environment around them. The large amount of time spent on the internet checking the new trends and seeking ways to match up the new trends leaves little time for people to focus on their personal growth. Lack of personal growth makes societal growth difficult since people have no time for each other due to their extremely busy schedules. Consumerism leads to excessive consumption of products offered in the market (Doherty et al 2002 p.105). With the rise in globalization, imports increase in number and the consumers increase their consumption. Globalization therefore intensifies materialism by offering consumers a wide variety of commodities. In recent times, consumerism portrays itself in the society where every individual strives to identify with a certain product. Recent adverts seek to convince the consumers that their lives only improve with the consumption of certain products. Life improves proportionately to the consumption habit of an individual. The budget of an average consumer mostly covers products that do not form part of the necessity basket. This means that people consume more products than necessary in the aim of getting a better life. Global celebrities set the trends for the global market as consumers buy commodities that the celebrities consume. Products also become a measure of an individual’s socioeconomic status and satisfaction (Binkley & Littler 2014 p.255). Anti-consumerism opposes this since relationships of people with products have replaced human relations. People seem to value the acquisition of certain products over the relationships with relatives, friends, and the society in general. Technology offers entertainment alternatives that offer companionship to an individual. Traditionally, family and friends offered the best companionship possible but technology now competes with that and alter a person’s priorities by placing human relations at the bottom of the list. Conclusion Evidently, globalization possesses both positive and negative aspects. Various forms of global resistance base their arguments on issues such as religion, culture, and values. The different reasons offered explain why globalization may not offer as much net benefit as expected. The Anti consumerism movement forms part of the major forms of resistance to globalization. The main reason for opposing globalization is the resulting obsessive consumption culture that results. Globalization opens up national boundaries enabling easy flow of commodities across the borders. The number of commodities available for consumption in a particular country therefore increases hence the will to purchase them. The modern lifestyle blinds people to believing that consumption of certain commodities improves one’s life and status. Contemporary living therefore goes hand in hand with consumption of commodities of modernity such as clothes and electronic gadgets. The consumerism craze extends to developing nations that now embrace the modern lifestyle and abandon their cultures. This has led to the rise in social vices such as theft and corruption as the level of greed increases in the population. A high level of competition and individualism exists in these nations as everyone seeks to improve their lives and attain a higher social status (Doherty et al 2002 p.98). Richness appears as a measure of one’s importance in the society. Accumulation of material possession becomes the main purpose of a person’s existence and therefore the poor lack meaning in the society since everyone ignores him or her for the lack of money. Consumerism therefore focuses on the human-product relationships and ignores the human-human relationships. Products take the position of people to an extent that people easily kill each other over material possessions. The detachment to people and nature makes people lose focus on the purpose of their existence. Globalization slowly influences the lives of the people in any society and may cause technological slavery. The survival of the human race largely depends on the maintenance of a healthy environment. Globalization results into serious damage to the environment through poisonous emissions and overexploitation of natural resources. Environmental degradation has become a serious problem that bothers every nation (Ritzer 2012). The initial stages of globalization excited every nation as they sought to benefit from it, particularly the developing nations who saw globalization as an excellent opportunity to improve their economic position. The developing nations especially those in Africa embraced globalization by trading the commodities that they could produce at lowest costs. Presence of cheap labor in the countries made it easy to produce agricultural products at low costs hence gave them a comparative advantage. They focused their agricultural industry on producing produce for exportation while ignoring the local demand. This led to a situation where the nations could produce surplus commodities for exportation while part of their population suffered from drought. This cause inequality in distribution of their resources where some regions could afford to produce more than they could consume while others have no access to any kind of the commodities. The focus on globalization as a major provider of their national income led to dysfunctional economies (Doherty et al 2002 p.96). The manufacturing industry in the countries faced a major blow since the farmer exported the best products while the industries remained with residual products. The nations continued exporting raw materials to developed nations who had a growing manufacturing industry. The developed nations manufactured commodities using the raw materials obtained and exported the resulting products to the developing nations at a higher price. The rich nations therefore became richer while the poor became poorer. Globalization therefore possesses both positive and negative effects on any nation. Some of the negative aspects brought forward such as environmental degradation have possible solutions. However, simple living remains a personal choice (Doherty et al 2002 p.88). The anti consumerism therefore cannot impose simple living on the people. This creates a major setback for the movement as they seek to revolutionaries the world. Their suggestions for minimizing wastage of resources through minimization of the level of consumption face major opposition from the modern lifestyle. Globalization creates the main platform for the promotion of contemporary living that majorly dwells on excessive consumption. In the process of seeking to promote simple living, the anti consumerism movement focuses on opposing globalization. References Luis Fernandez (2008). Social Control and the Anti-Globalization Movement, 100-208 Kim Humphrey, John Wiley & Sons (2013) Excess: Anti-consumerism in the West. 99-280 Sam Binkley, Jo Littler (2014) Cultural Studies and Anti-Consumerism. 45-296 (2013). Anti-Corporate Activism: Anti-Globalization Movement, Mclibel Case, Sweatshop, Whistleblower, Godspeed You! Black Emperor, Consumerism, Détournement, 55- 98 Frederic Henry Veltmeyer (2004). Freeganism: Anti-consumerism, Dumpster Diving, Portmanteau, Veganism, Anti-globalization Movement, Environmentalist, Diggers (theater), Anarchism, Street Theatre, Simple Living, Permaculture 100- 116. Courtney Bender, Wendy Cadge, Peggy Levitt, David Smilde (2012). Religion on the Edge: De-centering and Re-centering the Sociology of Religion. 205-312. Psyche Williams Forson, Carole Counihan (2013). Taking Food Public: Redefining Food ways in a Changing World. 412- 656. Alastair Fuad-Luke (2013). Design Activism: Beautiful Strangeness for a Sustainable World. 88-272. Kevin Wehr (2011). Green Culture: An A-to-Z Guide. 376-558. Carolyn Merchant (2012). Radical Ecology: The Search for a Livable World. 117-304. Joanne Poyourow (2005). Legacy: A Story of Hope for a Time of Environmental Crisis. 299- 388. Henry Veltmeyer (2004). Globalization and Antiglobalization: Dynamics of Change in the New World Order. 200- 224. David Held, Anthony McGrew (2007). Globalization/Anti-Globalization: Beyond the Great Divide. 175- 283. Carolyn Merchant (1989). Ecological Revolutions: Nature, Gender, and Science in New England. 357-379. Carolyn Merchant (2004). Reinventing Eden: The Fate of Nature in Western Culture. 153- 308. Carolyn Merchant (1990). The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution. 144- 384. Robin Hackett (2004). Sapphic Primitivism: Productions of Race, Class, and Sexuality in Key Works of Modern Fiction. 54- 189. Jacob Kẹhinde Olupona (2004). Beyond Primitivism: Indigenous Religious Traditions And Modernity. 134- 348. Brian Doherty, Matthew Paterson And Benjamin Seel (2002). Direct Action In British Environmentalism. 63-106. George Ritzer (2012). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion To Sociology. 325-513. Tania Lewis, Emily Potter(2013). Ethical Consumption: A Critical Introduction. 11-42. Read More