The Measure of a Childs - Case Study Example

RUNNING HEAD: ACADEMIC SERVICE LEARNING Academic Service Learning Name Institution Date Introduction As highlighted by Miller (2002), the measure of a child’s maturity is determined through development which can either take place in the mind (cognation), both behavioural development and emotional development. As such, development is argued to be a continuous progression of growth of an individual from right from conception to death and beyond. Psychologists have devised many principles and theories to explain the process of development and the different factors that impact on it. Theories are interrelated ideas which are coherent and essential in explaining and making prediction. In this regard, development theorists argue that the experiences which occur between conception and death are very critical and determine the personality of an individual at different intervals in life. According to them, development is the product of nature and nurtures interplay which includes the effects of environment and inheritance. In this case, some of the theories that have been put across to explain the phenomena of development include psychoanalytic theory, cognation theory, social learning theory and attachment theory among others. In view of the above therefore, this particular paper intends to analyze Bowlby’s attachment theory and Bandura’s social learning theory, while also seeking to explore their knowledge on development. In addition, this particular paper will be supplementing these arguments by a survey through the help of a questionnaire. Bowlby’s devised the attachment theory in reaction to Sigmund Freud’s proposition that personality is due to libido and oral gratification instinct (Siegel, 2010). This particular theory explains the importance of a child’s attachment to his or her care giver in personality development. Attachment is a unique emotional relationship that entails an exchange of comfort, care and pleasure. Bowlby described attachment as a lasting psychological connectedness between human beings (Karen, 1990). Bowlby, according to Kruglanski & Stroebe (2012), continued to argue that early experiences of children with their caregivers have fundamental influence on personality development later on in life. Relationship between the infant and the caregivers is the basis of attachment-style establishments. Bowlby also held that attachment has an evolutionary element and that there are four distinctive characteristics of attachment, with the first being proximity maintenance where an individual has a desire to be near people he or she is attached to. Second one is associated with safety (safe haven) where an individual has the tendency to return to the attachment figure for comfort and safety in the face of fear or threat. He observed that children would cling to their caregivers when they sensed danger (Kruglanski & Stroebe, 2012). Third one is a secure base, where attachment figure acts as a base for security from where an individual explores the environment. Indeed, Bowlby and his colleagues claimed that attachment figure is a secure base from which an infant can explore the world and that infants who enjoyed sensitive relationship with their care givers grew up well and adjusted without fear to face the world in comparison to those who had insensitive care givers. As Kruglanski & Stroebe (2012 pp 374) noted, this move was highly supported by security theorist who argued that familial security is the basis through which an individual can work out gradually, forming new skills and interests in other fields. On other hand, where familial security lacked, the individual is usually handicapped. The final one is the separation distress associated with occurrence of anxiety when the attachment figure is absent. As such, children would cry so much when they were separated from their caregivers but stopped when their caregivers came back (Kruglanski & Stroebe, 2012, pp 374). In view of the above, Bowlby suggested that when children are reared and raised with confidence, they are assured that their primary care givers will be available to them, they are less likely to develop fear than those who are brought up without such conviction (Siegel, 2010). At the same time, Bowlby held that confidence is initiated during critical period of development, including the years of infancy, child hood and adolescence and that the expectation formed during this periods remain unchanged for the rest of an individual’s life. Bowlby also held that the expectations formed are always linked to the actual experiences in life (Karen, 1990). In this case, Bowlby meant that children develop expectations that their caregivers will be responsive to their needs, because, in their experience, primary caregivers have been responsive in the past. Similarly, Bowlby pointed out that when children are raised in unstable families dominated by domestic violence and divorce usually lack the perfect attachment with their parents as ought to. Bowlby further argues that these children are likely to be maladjusted to some percentages in their adult lives (Kruglanski & Stroebe, 2012 pp 374).By using a question such as the one provided below; Bowlby’s theory of attachment can be quite useful in enhancing the understanding and knowledge behind individual development. Questionnaire This question is developed in relation to an argument proposed by Bowlby, the attachment theorist and is specifically meant for adults. Note: All the details required for this research will remain confidential as they will not be disclosed Questionnaire instruction I. Please answer the question with high level of honesty and integrity for research purpose II. For section (A) questions, tick the most appropriate answer. III. For section (B) questions fill the space provided at least with a little description. Personal details: I. Name: II. Gender: male / female SECTION A 1. How many times in a month do you visit your parent if they are alive? None twice more than twice 2. Do you regularly go for advice to your parents (guardian) when you are in a problem? Yes or No 3. Are you married? If you are, how can you rate your marriage? Good perfect unstable 4. Are you temperamental while dealing with other people? Yes No 5. Do you fear to try new things? Yes No please give an example on your response by briefly describing what happened_____________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ SECTION B 6. When did you join university if you ever did? And what was the experience on your first day? Did you have fan? Briefly explain_______________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 7. While in the university which co-curricular activity did you participate in? If you never had any co-curricular activities please skip this question? ____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ 8. Apart from your career, what else do you do for leisure? Give a brief description ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 9. Do you have children? If you do, would you give them the same attention your parent gave you? Please explain ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 10. Between you and your spouse who is more attached to the children? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ NOTE: Your participation in this study is greatly appreciated, and steps have been taken to ensure your anonymity. Please don’t write your telephone number on the question paper. This questionnaire focuses on evaluating and analyzing the validity of the attachment theory by providing additional information hence creating better understanding. The questions in this particular questionnaire are to a larger extent linked to Bowlby’s theory where the answer emphasizes on the fundamentals of the theory. The first question justifies the attachment theory in that any individual who had sensitive care givers will always go back to them (caregivers) for any form of support, be it emotional support or material support. The individual who do not respond positively most likely may not have had sensitive caregivers with the all other factors remaining constant (Peterson, 2010). As postulated by Bowlby in his theory, caregivers can lead to either well adjusted individuals or maladjusted individuals. In most cases, well adjusted individuals have the capacity to keep the best marriage ever where both husband and wife live peacefully without sensitivity, which is extended to their children. Unstable marriages may be attributed to maladjusted individuals who usually have unbearable personality irregularities, as the attachment theory proposes. (Brown et al, 2008). Additionally, according to the theory sensitive caregivers cultivate confidence in infants, which the infants adopt for the best part of their lives. In regards to the theory, they usually have no fear in facing new challenges, and as such are very resilient to challenges while also ready to venture into new fields requiring new skills (Miller, 2002). As argued further by Miller (2002), these are the individuals who mostly go for other co-curricular activities in schools like swimming, dancing, games and many others. Even in their normal lives, they normally go for other activities without fear in an effort to learn new skills. They are generally positive-minded as supported by the attachment theory and would even want to give sensitive care giving to those who are close to them in much the same way that they were given by their caregivers. Albert Bandura developed social learning theory of development. The theory states that learning occurs as a result of observing others in their natural social lives, otherwise known as modeling (Bandura, 2002).Bandura observed that there are three fundamental concepts at the heart of social learning theory, with the first being the idea that people can learn through observation. Through the Bodo doll experiment, Bandura (1971) observed that children learn and imitate behaviours that they have observed in other people who may be their caregivers, their siblings and many others. Children who observe violent behaviours happening are more likely to be violent as they would often want to imitate the same as further observed by Bandura (1971). Bandura gave the name model to the people who exhibited the observed behaviour. As such, Bandura identified three models, which includes live model. Live model involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behaviour.The second model is the verbal instruction model. This particular model entails description and explanation of behaviour. The final one is the symbolic model. This particular model involves real or fiction character exhibiting behavior in books, film and electronic media (Bandura, 2002). In the second concept of social learning and development, Bandura (2002) noted that cognation/mental states are integral part of learning. In this, Bandura claimed that while external environment (extrinsic motivation) was central to social learning, intrinsic reinforcement also played a role in it. Intrinsic reinforcement according to Bandura was a form of internal reward such as pride, satisfaction and fulfillment. Lastly, this theory appreciates that just because something has been learnt does not necessarily mean that there is change of behaviour. In this, Bandura held that observational learning can facilitate an individual’s learning of new information without necessarily leading to new behaviours. According to Bandura (1971), modeling entails several steps which interplay in terms of bringing about learning and which must be followed. The first is attention, where in order to learn, one needs to pay attention and avoid any distraction so as to have a positive effect on observational learning. The second is retention which involves the ability and capacity to store the observed information while equally maintaining the ability to retrieve the stored information later and act on it. Retention of information, as argued by Bandura (1971), can however be affected by a number of factors. Reproduction is the third step and involves performing the behaviour that was observed. Practice of the observed behaviour leads to improvement and advancement in skills (Bandura, 2002).The final step is motivation which basically energizes observational learning where one imitates the behaviour that had been modeled. In this case, the people around the child will respond to the behaviour it imitates with either reinforcement or punishment which an important role in social learning. (Cox & Paley, 2003).If the behaviours the child learns are approved then those behaviors are bound to happen again. The approval that the child gets is internal reinforcement while the joy and satisfaction the child gains after succeeding in doing certain behaviour is internal reinforcement (Bandura, 2002).On the other hand, a punishment operates in contrast with rewards where the child avoids behaviours which amount to punishment. Behaviours can also be reinforced through vicarious reinforcement where by the observers are motivated by the consequences of the behaviour that the model exposes. For instance, in development, a particular child who observes another child being punished after behaving in a particular manner, chances are that the observing child will avoid that particular behaviour. On other hand, positive reinforcement will motivate the observer to learn the behavior being modeled and therefore learning (Bandura, 2002). Social learning theory thus enhances development through social environmental influence on behaviour especially at the infancy and childhood periods of development (Cox & Paley, 2003).Children will always want to identify with their models in the society, the models whose behaviours have rewarding consequences. For instance, during the Oedipus complex the child can only identify with the same sex parent, whereas with Social Identity Theory the person (child or adult) can potentially identify with any other person (Peterson, 2010). Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of behaviours being adopted whereas imitation normally involves copying a single behaviour. As further stated by Bandura (2002), media such as televisions also facilitates modeling of behaviours. An interview questionnaire such as the one provided below clearly highlights the main tenets of Bandura’s theory in practice. Questionnaire This interview is meant for adults and is based on psychological knowledge of developmental theorist Albert Bandura Note: All the details required are meant for research purposes only and will not be disclosed Questionnaire instruction I. Please answer the question with high level of honesty and integrity for research purpose II. For all the questions, fill in the blank spaces. Personal details: I. Name: II. Gender: male / female SECTION A 1. When you were a teenager, which of your parents did you identify with? Father or mother please give a reason ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. When you enrolled in the university what course did you take? Who motivated you to take it? Please give a brief explanation. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. While in school did you engage in any extra-curricular activity and if so, from whom did you learn? _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. While you were in university who was your model lecture? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5. Do you know how to play a guitar? From whom did you learn it? A friend or family? Please give a brief description. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 6. What have you ever learnt from your siblings? How did you learn it, through observation or through being taught? Please give a brief description_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7. In your teenage life who was your favorite presenter and why? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8. What are some of your achievements? Who between your close relatives did motivate you most in achieving them? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 9. In your current occupation who motivates you most and how? Please give a brief description.______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 10. Do you remember any particular instance that your brother or sister was punished because of doing wrong?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ NOTE: Your participation in this study is greatly appreciated, and steps have been taken to ensure your anonymity. Please don’t write your telephone on the question paper. Social learning theory is highly depicted in this particular questionnaire which focuses on getting more information regarding modeling. According to Bandura (1971), the social learning theory learning is all about observational learning where the infant or an adult learns new knowledge, behaviours and attitudes .Caregivers, who are mostly the family members, often make the first models in a child’s life (Bandura 2002).They are the people who approve or disapprove behaviours that the child mimics thus encouraging or discouraging learning of a particular behaviour. In the family, the child exposes behaviours which can be traced back to certain members of the family, the mother, the father or the siblings. Whoever that is, he or she has an influence on the child as the child seems to have identified with him or her. In most cases the parents are the objects of identification since children normally look after them and are highly motivated by them, thus acting as a source of behaviour motivation. This identification may persist in later stages of development including adolescence, teenager, early adulthood, late adulthood and old age. Such objects of identification act as a source of motivation to the observer’s behaviour hence energizing the behaviours that the observer project (Bandura 1971). Apart from parents, siblings and other relatives may facilitate learning of an individual through modeling. For instance, siblings learn so many skills from each other including dancing style, swimming, playing a particular game or even a naughty behaviour. At the same time, a child may vicariously learn behaviour from the other siblings depending on the consequences of the behaviour (Brendtro, 2006). An instance would be when a child strives to learn the behaviours that the other sibling projects if they elicit approval from parent and avoids behaviours that are punished as seen earlier. Usually the child may not forget the instances that his or her siblings were punished because of a certain behaviour since it was a source of learning, as highlighted by question number ten in the questionnaire. At the same time, the social environment beyond family set up may facilitate learning. This kind of modeling may also be facilitated by many objects such as televisions which through their presenters and the various people that the presenters interview facilitate learning. Musician/artists may also be a source of learning and therefore modeling. In addition, teachers and lectures may be a source of inspiration through the lives they lead and behaviours they expose. They motivate students and hence facilitating the realization of student’s goals and objectives. Conclusion In conclusion both attachment and social learning theories are very vital in the development of humans since they nurture personalities. As such, parents should be very cautious on how they handle their children since experiences nurtured during this period form the basis for future development as noted by the developmental theorists highlighted in the paper. Attachment theory, for instance, lays emphasis on caregivers to apply sensitivity since it is fundamental as described in this analysis. Similarly, in the social learning theory, caregivers are advised to give the best modeling to their children and to apply reinforcement either positive or negative to shape the desired behaviours References Bandura, A. (2002). Social Cognitive Theory in Cultural Context. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 51(2), 269-290. Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis. Englewood CLiffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall. Bandura, Bandura, A. (1971). Social Learning Theory. General Learning Press: New York. Brendtro, L. K. (2006). The vision of Urie Bronfenbrenner: Adults who are crazy about Kids. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 15(3), pp 162-166. Brown, D., Rodgers, Y. H., & Kapadia, K. (2008). Multicultural Considerations for the Application of Attachment Theory. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 62(4), pp 353- 363. Crain, W. (2004). Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. Prentice Hall:New York Cox, M. J., & Paley, B. (2003). Understanding Families as Systems. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(5), 193-196. Gibbs, J. C. (2003). Equipping Youth with Mature Moral Judgment. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 12(3), 148-153. Karen, R. (1990). Becoming Attached. The Atlantic Monthly, Pp.1-18. Kruglanski W. & Stroebe W., (2012). Handbook of the History of Social Psychology. Psychology Press: London Miller, P.H. (2002).Theories of Developmental Psychology.Worth: New York Peterson, C. C. (2010). Early adulthood: Physical, cognitive, social and personality development. In looking forward through the lifespan (5th ed., pp. 392-417) Siegel, D. (2010). Making Sense of our Lives: Attachment and the Storytelling Brain. In Mind Sight: Change your brain and your life. Bantam Books: New York, Pp.166-189. ________________________________________   Read More