The Ways in Which Gender Influences Health of Women - Assignment Example

RUNNING HEAD: Final Exam Questions Health and Social Care Client Inserts His/her Name Client Inserts Name of Institution Assignment 1: Discuss the ways in which gender influence health of women? The relevance of gender in health of women is an area on focus by current research. Bottorff et al. (2011) define gender as “the socially prescribed and experienced dimensions of feminism and masculinity in a society”. Gender dimensions in women are greatly displayed in social and economic behaviour. Influence on biological health Gender determines health yet it is itself determined by biological and psychological factors (Davidson et al., 2006). They point out that gender biological, physical and hormonal aspects influence health. The identified gender related biological outcomes include: chromosomal disorders, infectious and non-infectious diseases, occupational and environmental diseases, trauma, pregnancy, menopause, and access to health services (Krieger, 2002). According to this view, “sex linked biological factors such as presence or absence of ovaries, testis, vagina, penis, hormone levels, and pregnancy” contribute in part to gender differentials in health (p. 2). For instance “parity and incidence of melanoma among women are typically attributed to pregnancy-related hormonal changes” (p.2). However, it is observed that gender, to an extent, does not determine much the biological health of humans (Davidson et al., 2006). For instance, it is known that men die most from heart disease compared to females. This does not mean that the disease is related to gender rather it is the lifestyle choices, attitudes towards health and social-support resources that are linked to cardiac diseases (Davidson, 2006). Nevertheless, to fully explain sex differences in biological health of women, it is imperative to focus beyond gender. This is because other factors such as cultural, social and psychological affiliations contribute more. Social health Social health of a woman entails the stability of her natural (both biotic and abiotic) surrounding in supporting her moral and ethical beliefs, aspirations and socio-economical needs. The factors include: peace, equity and social justice, access to physiological needs, safety needs, work and recreation, and opportunity to for learning and skill development. Others are strong and mutually supportive relationships and networks, job environment that is supportive of individual and family well being, wide participation in decision making, and strong participation in decision making (McMurray & Clendon, 2005). It is expected that when women remain in their social positions, playing by the pre-determined social responsibilities and enjoying a conducive social environment, then they remain socially healthy. Psychological health Psychological health entails the stability of a person’s mood and emotions. It also relates to anxiety, feelings and self control. Fischer (2000) as mentioned in Greenberger & Blake (1996) observed that “women are more emotional, less aggressive, suffer more from fear of failure, and cannot withstand stress as well” (p. 5). This behaviour is determined by hereditary factors inherent in women at birth. She argues (as supported by Parrot, 1995), however, that emotions are internal components of an individual regardless of gender. It should not be equated to feelings because such an equation confuses the view that feelings are controllable, rational, and expressed (Fisher, 2000). It should also be viewed that the relatively high response by women to psychological stress is associated with biological factors inherent in them. Macrae (2010) holds that women are “more sensitive to a key stress hormone - with even small amounts sending their emotions into a whir”. If a woman lives in an environment that supports her emotional interests, then she will be psychologically healthy. Assignment 2 The importance of Social Policies to the lives of women Social policies are regulations designed to address issues that affect a society. They exist at a range of levels, for example, the women’s health centres, local governments, states, national governments, and international organisations such as the World Health Organisation touching on all sectors. The policies are designed to benefit the society and create a balanced environment. Example of such social policies include explicit laws which are designed to address social issues of concern, such as laws which prohibit employment discrimination on the basis of race, gender, or creed. In addition, authorities can also involve programs and initiatives which are used to promote progress on social issues in some way, such as incentives to developers who build affordable housing, rural health access and literacy programs. Welfare for the poor, food stamps, affordable housing initiatives, health care, unemployment benefits, equal opportunity employment laws, antidiscrimination laws, and policy initiatives which are designed to benefit disadvantaged people in society. Social policies as determinants of environments in which women make life choices It should be appreciated that majority of social policies in practise today have been designed to lessen the social disparity women have faced in the past. While most of the social policies lie outside the creation of national health agencies as observed by World Health Organization ((Baum, 2002; World Health Organization, 1986), the target has been creation of gender parity to ensure sustainability of societal needs and aspirations. According to Ortiz (2007), social policies have among others; enabled labour development hence enhanced productivity, promoted education, health and social protection to all (p. 37-54). This has enabled revolution from initially male dominated society, to multifaceted societies where both genders are opportune to explore their capabilities. Some of the mentioned social factors, however, put women at risk at mental health. To start with, women are automatic guardians of their homesteads, having a responsibility of managing the welfare of members of their families. Secondly, they provide care for their spouses, children, friends and relatives. In so doing, they are tasked to make choices on the development of their families. These chores subject them to biological, social and psychological torture. This extent of pressure is even extrapolated for the women in their middle age that, in their jobs, may face challenges of lifelong lower pay, part-time working, family caring, widowhood or divorce health. For instance, most women suffer from depression and anxiety stemming from the many responsibilities society accords them. Women have also lacked adequate protection from male violence in their homes that remain male dominated. Being care givers to their families, modification of policies may affect them drastically. In many states, the social laws predispose men as breadwinners in their families. This policy, to an extent, limit aggression in women whose chores are limited to providing home care. It also exposes them to dependence on their husband’s hence male dominion. To lessen this tension, women should be able to talk about these issues affecting them and solicit for networks that help them overcome the challenges. According to Prabhakar, women can overcome mental depression in several ways. They include cognitive behaviour therapy where a woman is taught about certain problematic thoughts that trigger anxiety. She is then shown how to cope with such thoughts. In addition, women are encouraged to be mindful of the present rather than allowing unnecessary thought to cluster their minds. Influence of Economic Environment on Women’s health The status a family economy seems to significantly influence a woman’s health. Varied factors of the economic environment have impacts. These factors include: family income level, engagement or family responsibility, financial support from spouse of close relatives. For cases of low income levels, access to quality health services such as vaccination, and clinical medical care becomes a challenge. As Thomas & Fick (1996) suggest, for breast cancer, “Early detection and diagnosis of … are associated with participation in mammography, breast self-examination, and seeking medical care”. Prevention practices are also limited since many of these require some financial base. In addition, proper treatment of an infection is only possible when early examination and diagnosis is done. Women from low economic background will also fail to adhere to recommended health practice in case of infection. Studies have revealed that low income mother do not receive vaccination against potential infections. “…household income and vaccination of mothers reveal that majority (85.4%) of the low-income mothers did not receive vaccination, while 55.2% of the high-income mothers did not receive vaccination. On the other hand, only 14.6% of the low-income mothers received vaccination, whereas 44.8% of the high-income mother received vaccination” (Bahauddin Zakariya University, 2004;p.3). Work engagement is also an economic source of ill health in women. Working may be an obligation to support one’s family and provide for one’s health. However, the work itself may deprive women of time to concentrate on healthy routine management. The result will be a withdrawn woman, who neglects her health. This only leads to psychological discomfort since she will realize a missing aspect of her life. A working or busy woman may also not adhere to stringent medical procedures especially when the procedures demand high level of individual concentration. In general, it is observed that modern social policies have impacted both positively to the welfare of women. Of merit are the provisions to women of a dynamic environment that allows them to make alternative life choices, access education, healthcare and security, and provision for equal opportunity for employment. Such factors have enabled societies to bridge social gaps that existed before, improving economic and social independence. It should also be observed that, most societies have preserved cultural ethos. Such ethos restricts positions of men and women in a society. It is to this end that despite the social freedom associated with the current social policies, women have found heavy task on their back Assignment 3 How Women’s Health Research impact and improve Women’s Health Care, and its effect on Violence against women? Women’s health research has curved a biomedical view of feminism that has a scientific rationality. This view is opposed to traditional male- cantered approach and aims at imparting valuable knowledge on women to enable them accept their rightful position by creation. This enables them manage their health and social welfare. The services and policies have aimed at reducing stress so as to control depression related to societal underpinnings. Kaplan (1972) asserts, “in a revolution there are only three things to do with the oppressors: kill them, force them to leave, or force them to undergo ideological re-education”. This has, however, been impossible to employ since the oppressor cannot respond to any of the Kaplan’s prescription. Research has therefore focused on unravelling the reproductive aspects of women, creating a medical speciality of gynaecology. Even then, research on women health has encountered gender related challenges. Sen, Ostlin, & George (2007) observe that the “content and processes of health research” have been biased (p. 79). The attention of medical and health social work with women shifted from treatment of infectious diseases such as cancer to include services that empower women. These new interventions have challenged previously held opinions on women’s professionalism, suggesting the significance of social movements to social change in women’s health care. Women’s Health Victoria (2009) asserts that “the lived experience, as well as the biology, of women and men is different, and therefore effective health responses cannot be gender neutral”. This is the basis of offering a different dimension to modern’s woman health. Attention of the health services have addressed: stress in women, drug abuse, networking among women, pregnancy, accessibility of physiological needs such as food, access to information, marital problems among more others. The focus has been to address these issues from a counselling perspective as a sure way of letting women cope with the challenges they meet in their day –to- day lives. They have been taught to adopt positive experience to life challenges rather than negative. In spite of the huge investment on women health research, scientific medical research has only concentrated on matters of women’s reproductive health, while ignoring other social and economic factors such as their role as carers, the impact of violence and ageing, and the cumulative effect of socioeconomic disadvantage. The feminism research, in providing an insight into women’s health, has significantly reduced the level of gender violence. Today, legislations have been enacted to protect women against gender related violence. Women activist groups have also come up to defend their gender against sex- related exploitation. The emergence of the gender abuse legislation and women activism stem from the scientific medical research on feminism. Nevertheless, the research has not successfully addressed women’s socio-economic challenges. References Bahauddin Zakariya University. (2004). SOCIO- ECONOMIC FACTORS AFFECTING THE TREND TOWARDS VACCINATION OF MOTHER AND INFANTS IN MULTAN CITY. Journal of Research (Science), Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan. Vol.15, No.1, June 2004, pp. 107-112 ISSN 1021-1012 Bottorff et al. (2011). Gender relations and health research: a review of current practices. International Journal for Equity in Health 2011, 10:60 DOI: 10.1186/1475-9276-10-60. Retrieved from: http://www.equityhealthj.com/content/10/1/60 Cairncross et al., (2005). What causes sustainable changes in hygiene behaviour? A cross-sectional study from Kerala, India. A journal of social science and medicine. 2005 Nov;61(10):2212-20. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15927330 Davidson et al. (2006). Gender as a Health Determinant and Implications Fischer Agneta H. (2000). Gender and Emotions. Social Psychological perspective. Paris. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from: http://php.scripts.psu.edu/users/a/x/axd192/www/PSU/PSUPsychologyISPG/home/resources/GenderEmotionChapter.pdf For Health Education. Health Education & Behaviour, Vol. 33 (6): 731-743 (December 2006) DOI: 10.1177/1090198106288043 Krieger, Nancy. (2002). Genders, sexes, and health: what are the connections—and why does it matter? International Journal of Epidemiology 2003; 32:652–657 DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyg156 Macrae Fiona (2010). Women more prone to emotional stress than men 'because of sensitivity to hormone'. Retrieved from: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-1286817/Women-prone-emotional-stress-men-sensitivity-hormone.html McMurray Anne, Clendon Jill (2005). Community health and wellness 4e Primary Health Care in Practise. Retrieved from: http://www.us.elsevierhealth.com/media/us/samplechapters/9780729539548/McMurray4e_sample_chapter.pdf Prabhakar Neha . Reduce the Symptoms of IBS Through Mindfulness. Retrieved from: http://ezinearticles.com/?Reduce-the-Symptoms-of-IBS-Through-Mindfulness&id=6331551 Sen, G., Ostlin, P., & George, A. (2007). Health research. In Unequal, unfair, ineffective and inefficient. Gender inequity in health: Why it exists and how we can change it (pp. 79-85). Women and Gender Equity Knowledge Network. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/social_determinants/resources/csdh_media/wgekn_final_report_07.pdf Thomas SM, Fick AC. (1995). Women's health. Part II: Individual, environmental and economic factors affecting adherence to recommended screening practices for breast cancer. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7775841 Women Health Victoria.(2012). Women Health and Family Services. 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