Genders, Sexes, and Health: What Are the Connections - Literature review Example

Gender Inequality Insert Name Institution Introduction The HIV/AIDS epidemic accounts for the highest mortality rates in the world, with a slight deviation between the individual states. The escalating mortality trend since 1981 has assumed different curves across the states, genders as well as the age. In earlier years men were the most hit by the epidemic but recent research report more than 60% of the infected population being women. The discussion will look at both the risks involved in acquiring the infection and the coping strategies that are implemented to show how they relate with gender inequality that is well pronounced in developing countries. This paper will critically outline the positive correlation between gender inequality and HIV prevalence among the women in the context of the social, economic as well as political point of view. Consequently, the paper will focus on the social model of health framework in the elaboration of the different instances where gender inequality contributes to the escalation of female mortality rates. The social model of health argues that the illnesses are product of the external environment and not solely by the biological components. This approach tends to give so much credit to the association and the influence by the factors that surround an individual as being the main determinants of his health and not a malfunction of the internal body system. Gender inequality is therefore a component of the social model as it outlines the different relationships with the environment at different levels and how the contribute to vulnerability of women in the prevention, acquisition and coping strategies after infection (Hobcraft, 1993). Social and cultural perspectives In developing countries, norms and practices put the woman at the second place according to traditions or the biblical approach. One of the most effective ways to prevent the spread of infection in the population is abstinence. Other ways of prevention would involve safe sex and being faithful to one partner who is not infected. However, most of the traditions and norms put the woman at a powerless position where she is not involved in the decision of whether to abstain, be faithful or use contraceptives. The men are the sole decision makers in such activities, which the woman is expected to submit to completely. This therefore means that if the man is unfaithful and is not in support of the use of contraceptives then the woman is at a risk of acquiring the infection. This is reinforced by the existence of severe punishments among most traditional setups in the instances of challenges or what they call misbehavior by the women. Consequently, the women are exposed to early marriages that lead to engagement of early sexual acts that further broaden the scope of risk of HIV infection in women. Women are care providers, which does not change in the instance of the HIV patients in the family (Krieger, 2003). This further put the women at risk because they have more chances of infection acquisition especially when ignorant as opposed to men who are not in direct contact in the care process. Some cultures uphold taboos and superstitions that further compromise the place of women and act as an obstacle in the management of HIV among women. For example, some cultures prohibit the women from consumption of some foods that are normally proteins and contribute to high levels of malnutrition in women. Researches report that the malnutrition levels affect women more than men in the developing counties. As a result, the women have a lowered immunity that renders them susceptible to the infection more easily as compared to men. In addition, the women are given a smaller food share as compared to men. This does not change even among the women infected because the care process is not comprehensive due to the many roles that are assigned to the women (Halperin and Epstein, 2004). In addition, health education that would be a sustainable remedy in the HIV transmission is almost inaccessible to most women in the developing countries. Most cultures disregard women and do not support them in activities like education as they are seen as being inferior. Most developing countries do not see the essence of education and the escalating illiteracy levels especially the women are not to make informed decisions. This means that if the women were to be informed on the ways in which the infection can spread then they may be able to elude from this disease. Education is very effective when dealing the spread of HIV and Aids and at the same time would promote the health seeking behavior that would cope with infection. Through education, women would be aware of the ways in which they can acquire the infection and be cautious as opposed to if they were ignorant. In addition the women who are already infected would be well versed on how to deal with it so as prolong life and ensure productivity (Kelly and Gray, 2003). Customs like polygamy, are widely practiced in the developing countries and render the women more vulnerable to the infection. This is because transmission can be spread to so many women through one man. Wife inheritance and some rituals that are meant to cleanse the woman put her to more danger ignorantly. This practice involves forcibly possession of a woman by the chosen male family member after the death of her husband. The woman is defenseless, as failure to acceptance of such practices would lead to excommunication or other severe punishments. This is a discriminatory approach as it intimidates the women and do not have the motivation to fight for their rightful position in the society (Guerny and Sjoberg, 1993). Economic perspective The spread of HIV is in a vicious cycle as far as the economic approach is concerned. It should be noted that the social approach also contribute to the economic sector in certain areas. For example, education is associated with high-income jobs and illiteracy associated with poverty. As discussed earlier women are denied the right to higher education in most developing countries, which therefore limit their involvement in the job markets leading to poverty. Due to high poverty levels among the women in the society, they are therefore prone to engagement in irresponsible sexual acts like prostitution that increase their susceptibility to the infection. On the other hand women are denied the access to resources like money as they are not involved in the decision making process. This therefore means that poor economic status is closely related with poor seeking behaviors thereby poor management of the infection. Consequently, economic status dictates the trend of the practices that are well-associated proper management of HIV infection like nutrition. This means that proper management of infection entails good dietary practices to boost the reduced immunity and reduce the wastage levels that are very high among the patients. However, the developing countries have drought spells and food insecurity as a main challenge that dictates the economic growth and consequently the nutrition status (Gregson et al., 2002). The vicious cycle in the economic status integrates several components in the activities that are practiced. Poverty or economic instability among women makes them engage in irresponsible sexual acts to get money and other resources that are withheld from them by the society. This therefore means that poverty increases the chances of HIV infection among the women in the developing countries. Consequently, HIV infection increases poverty among the women because it reduces their productivity levels and the role transitions have an impact on the psychological perspective. Reduced productivity increases the dependency ratio in individual families that influence the care process and all the activities that depend on income (Childhope, 1997). Political perspective Most of the policies that are formulated in the developing countries are in favor of the male gender at the expense of female. Women are denied the right to participate in political decisions as evidenced male dominance in most senior positions. As a result, most of the women issues are not well taken care of due to failure of women representation in the leading positions. Gender violence is well pronounced in the developing countries based on the subordinate position of the woman and the inferior value associated with her (Caldwell, 1979). Most of the political set ups especially the traditional deny the women right to ownership of property. As a result, the women cannot claim right of ownership to property and are therefore in utter poverty that in return compromises the income sourcing means. This means that if the women are poor they will then go to any extent including prostitution to acquire income to meet their basic needs. In addition, the authority to access society resources is a responsibility of the men and not women. In the case of HIV infection the sole decision on whether a woman should enroll in the rehabilitative program is a sole decision by the men (Buve, Bishikwabo-Nzarhaza & Mutangadura, 2002).. Stigmatization also forms part of gender inequality as far as women with HIV infection are concerned. This is because women who are infected with HIV are seen as being immoral which not the case on the infected men is. Researches show that women are treated unfairly in prisons especially those accused with crimes of prostitution. It is as if the men have the right to seen and women should not. Gender based violence cases are not treated with utmost seriousness that is required. Rape cases that are very rampant in the developing countries and closely associated with increasing the chances of HIV infection are done to offend the women and portray inferiority. Consequently, women report incidences of taunt from the police officers to whom they report such cases. There are also incidences where rape cases are turned against the woman that would contribute to the escalation in the crime rates that further put the woman at risk of infection (Bonnel, 2000). A study involving gang youths revealed greater risks of the women participants due to women victimization that is rampant. The male youth engage in deliquescent acts like raping their female participants to draw the bounder line between the genders. Consequently questioning over the women involvement was dominated on sense of insecurity. The female youth explained that they felt secure in the gangs as they would feel protected from the cruel society (Bruyn, 1992). Unfortunately, the gangs they turn to as a means of help are not salvation as they also victimize the women and make them susceptible to the infection. There was also the issue of using such discriminatory approach as a way of revenge as the disgrace would be the best way to get at them. In addition, most gangs adopted sex as the recruiting tool of the women into the groups. The women who were able to fight and resist rape were seen as being powerful and could be involved in the decision-making processes while those who were over powered were regarded as being powerless and were not accorded any respect in the gang. Such acts would increase the spread of HIV among the gang members and those who have no choice as to whether to engage in irresponsible sexual behavior are the women. This therefore means that the susceptibility of women in the infection of HIV is not on the same measure as the men (Ballantyne, 1999). Conclusion HIV is a deadly killer and the mitigation of its effects as well as prevention strategies need to be addressed with much seriousness especially among the developing countries. Gender inequality is the first issue that should be considered especially with the escalating rates in the women mortality. As discussed most dangers of acquiring as well as succumbing to this infection among the women is rooted on the inequality grounds. The remedies that are recommended must aim at promoting equality, as this will reduce the many risks that come along inequality. Consequently, policies need to be addressed urgently to promote ethics and at the same time foster compliance in respect to the women rights. The economic need to be given much weight as well as the prevention and management of the infection are directly influenced by the level of income. The social and political dimensions require reforms as well to address the mortality issue owing to the fact that the infection is related to the diversified deaths. References Ballantyne, P. (1999). The Social Determinants of Health: A Contribution to the Analysis of Gender Differences in Health. Scandinavian. New York press. Bonnel, R. (2000). HIV/AIDS: Does it increase or decrease growth in Africa. New York. New York press Bruyn, M. (1992) Women and AIDS in developing countries, Social Science and Medicine, Oxford. Oxford University press. Buve A, Bishikwabo-Nzarhaza, K., Mutangadura, G. (2002). “The spread and effect of HIV-1 infection in sub-Saharan Africa”. Lancet, 359:2011-2017. Caldwell, J (1979). “Education as a factor of mortality decline: an examination of Nigerian Data”. Journal of Comparative Sociology, 37, 5–30. Childhope. F. (1997). Gender, sexuality and attitudes related to AIDS among low income youth and street youth in Rio de Janeiro, New York: New York Press. Gregson, S. Nyamukapa, G. Garnett, P. Mason, T. Zhuwau, M. Carael, S. (2002). “Sexual Mixing Patterns and Sex-Differentials in Teenage Exposure to HIV Infection in Rural Zimbabwe”. The Lancet 359: 1896-1903. Guerny, J., Sjoberg, E. (1993) Interrelationship between gender relations and the HIV/AIDS epidemic: some possible consideration for policies and programmes, AIDS. 1993, Aug; 7 (8): 1027 - 34. Halperin, D, and Epstein, H. (2004). “Concurrent sexual partnerships help to explain Africa's high HIV prevalence: implications for prevention”. Lancet 2004; 363: 4-6. 24. Hobcraft, J. (1993). “Women’s education, child welfare and child survival: a review of the evidence”. Health Transition Review, 3(1), 1 59-175 Kelly, R, Gray, R. (2003). “Age Differences in Sexual Partners and Risk of HIV-1 Infection in Rural Uganda”. Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health 2003, 48(3):213-219 Krieger, N. (2003) Genders, sexes, and health: what are the connections and why does it matter? New York: Oxford press. Read More