The Extent of Child Abuse Problem and What We Are Doing About It - Research Paper Example

The Extent of Child Abuse Problem and What We Are Doing About It TABLE OF CONTENTS ITEM PAGE NO Introduction 3 Types of Child Abuse 4 Neglect 4 Physical 5 Psychological/Emotional 6 Sexual 7 Causes of Child Abuse 8 Parental Factors 8 Family Factors 12 Child Factors 13 Environmental Factors 13 Effects of Child Abuse 13 Prevalence 16 Prevention 16 Conclusion 17 References 18 Introduction Child abuse is a very serious problem which is detrimental to the health and development of children. The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) defines child abuse as “any recent act or failure to act on the part of parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation; or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm” (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2008). However, each state has the discretion to use its own definition for the purposes of prosecution and protection of the child. This has resulted in a lot of difficulties in conducting research on child abuse since the results depend on the definition used. From the definition, we can deduce that child abuse is inflicted by a close person to the victim especially parents and caregivers and can result in serious consequences. There are various types of child abuse: neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional or psychological abuse. It can occur in child’s home, school, organization or the community in which the child lives. This paper is aimed at discussing the prevalence, nature and extent of child abuse in the United States. First, the paper will discuss the types of child abuse. Secondly, the paper will discuss the causes and effects of maltreatment. Thirdly, it will explore the prevalence of the problem and how it can be prevented. Lastly, it will discuss the organizations that have been in the forefront of helping to alleviate this menace and other efforts that are being made to ensure the problem is eliminated. Child abuse is a very serious cause of health problems and is a burden to the child welfare services due to the enormous costs it spends on victims. Most serious are the fatalities that arise from the problem. It is estimated that 2.07 children per 100,000 children die from abuse and neglect in 2010 and an average of 4 children die every day due to child abuse (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2012). Bearing in mind that it is perpetrated by the same people who are supposed to protect the child, this problem needs much consideration and solutions. Types of Child Abuse There are four major categories of child abuse: neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional or psychological abuse (USDHHS, 2008). Neglect Neglect refers to the refusal by a parent or caregiver to provide the child with the basic needs. It can take the form of physical, medical, educational and emotional neglect. Physical neglect is failure to provide the child with items such as food, shelter and clothing. Medical neglect is where the caregiver refuses intentionally to offer the child medical treatment. Sometimes parents refuse their children medical treatment due to religious faith and this is tantamount to child abuse (DePanfilis, 2006). Failure to provide the child with education for whatever reason especially due to disability is neglecting the child. Emotional neglect occurs when a child is deprived emotional needs such as psychological care or failing to pay attention to their emotional needs. A study carried out by Kaplan, Schene, DePanfilis and Gilmore (2009) on chronic neglect showed that showed that in more than 3.3 million reports of child maltreatment involving 6 million children each year, over half were neglect cases (1). This is supported by the child maltreatment report of 2010 which shows that neglect is the most common form of child maltreatment with a rate of 78.3% (USDHHS, 2011). There are many reasons as to why parents neglect their children some intentional while others are due to circumstances. Some of the most common causes of child neglect include: poverty, mental illness, substance abuse, unwanted pregnancies, and domestic violence. The children welfare system takes care of the neglected children by assisting the families of the victims but if the problem is self-imposed the perpetrator is liable to conviction. Neglect has serious consequences on the physical, emotional, and cognitive development of the child. It can lead to poor attachment, poor social relationships, language deficit and low self-esteem among others (DePanfilis, 2006). The problem is worsened further by lack of a clear definition as to what constitutes neglect especially due to cultural diversity. This poses a major setback to the child protective service programs initiated by the public child welfare system leading to recurrence of the problem. Chronic neglect which refers to an ongoing serious pattern of deprivation of basic physical, developmental and emotional needs is therefore very high as opposed to nonchronic neglect (Kaplan et al. 2009 p. 2). Physical Abuse Physical abuse refers to causing serious injuries or action that places the child at risk of serious injury or death. This can be in form of punching, biting, shaking, stabbing, hitting, burning and kicking among others (USDHHS, 2011). Contrary to neglect which is mostly perpetrated by parents or caregivers, physical abuse is carried out by parents, caregivers, close relatives or any other person responsible for child caring. Physical abuse can also be perpetrated by a stranger. It can occur at home, school or any other place. According to the child welfare information gateway (2012), there is a very thin line between physical abuse and disciplining the child. Due do diversity in cultural norms, there no agreement as to what behavior constitutes child abuse. However, CAPTA considers any behavior that results in minor or serious injury to the child whether accidental or intentional as child abuse (USDHHS, 2008). The Swedish government in 1966 banned teachers from using corporal punishment at schools and also parents against reprimanding their children. This was aimed at “providing children with the same protection from assault that adults receive and to clarify grounds for criminal prosecution of parents who abuse their children” (Durrant, 1996, p. 20). The USDHHS (2008) places physical abuse as the second prevalent form of abuse at 16% compared to neglect which accounts for 64.1%. This is according to a report conducted in 2006. The main causes of physical abuse include: alcohol and drug abuse, domestic violence, unwanted pregnancies, unemployment, and cultural norms that allow corporal punishment. Children experiencing physical abuse suffer from minor and serious injuries such as fracture which may have permanent effect on the child. The child may also have brain impairment, poor health and may also die due to internal injuries or other health problems resulting from physical injury. Psychological/Emotional Abuse Research indicates that this is the most difficult form of abuse to discern as it does not leave visible marks. As a result, the child protection services may not be able to intervene due to lack of evidence. The child welfare information gateway (2008) defines emotional abuse as a pattern of behavior that impairs a child’s emotional development or sense of self- worth. It involves excessive criticism, withholding love support or guidance, rejection, ridicule, humiliation, or threats of harm. Children are very much attached to their parents especially mothers as part of their emotional development (Lyons-Ruth, 1996). If the parents deny the child love it is bound to suffer emotionally. The peers may also contribute to emotional abuse by humiliating and labeling them. These children may react by withdrawing themselves from the rest of the population; they may insult the perpetrator or even fight back. Emotional abuse is the least prevalent form of child abuse rated at 8.1 % by the child maltreatment report of 2010 (USDHHS, 2011). It is manifested in children in form of self-blame, disrupted attachment development, mental illness such as post-traumatic stress disorder, suicidal ideas, and learned helplessness among others. Due to failure to detect the symptoms of emotional abuse and seek medical assistance, these children may end up dying. This form of abuse leaves permanent mark on the child and has a tendency of affecting the child later in life as adults. For example, research indicates that children who suffer emotional abuse are likely to become abusers later in life or develop post-traumatic disorder s adults (Lyons-Ruth, 1996; USDHHHS, 2008). It is therefore imperative that this problem be resolved to avoid further harm to children. Sexual Abuse Sexual abuse is defined by CAPTA as “employment, use, persuasion, inducement, coercion of any child to engage in, or assist any other person to engage in, any sexually explicit conduct or simulation of such conduct for the purpose of producing a visual depiction of such conduct, or the rape, prostitution, or other form of sexual exploitation of children” (Child Welfare Information Gateway (2008). It involves acts of indecent exposure of genitals to a child, actual sexual contact, sex tourism, pornography, pressuring the child to engage in sexual acts, and physical contact with child genitals (Child Sexual Abuse, 2012). Most children are abused by known individuals rather than strangers especially close family members. Sexual abuse is very common with 9.2% of victims experiencing it at least once in their life time (USDHHS, 2011). The most common cause of child sexual abuse is poverty or economic factors. This leads to parents or close persons trafficking children for child prostitution, production of pornography, sex tourism and exploitation. Other causes may be substance abuse, domestic violence, and mental illness. Sexual abuse has very serious consequences on the victims. It can lead to death, loss of self-esteem, suicide, sexual dysfunction, mental illnesses, future victimization, addiction and also physical injuries. Causes of Child Abuse Understanding the causes of this heinous crime is vital to addressing the problem of child abuse. It is very essential for those professionals who deal with children and families to identify child abuse and the risk factors so that they can develop appropriate interventions to prevent child abuse and neglect (Rycus & Hughes, 1998). According to researchers there is no known single cause of child maltreatment especially due to the simple reason that not all families where abuse or neglect occurs are affected by similar factors. What may result in abuse in one family may not result in abuse in another family (Newton & Gerrits, 2010). For example, substance abuse especially alcohol is often attributed to child abuse but not all alcoholics are abusive parents. The same case applies to poverty, many households are poor but child abuse does not occur in all those poor families. It is difficult to understand why parents or any person would hurt a child and why some factors apply to some individuals and not others. Many people assume such individuals suffer from mental disorders but research has proven otherwise (Pandey, 2007). No matter the case, it is imperative to understand these factors to prevent abuse. According to research, child abuse and neglect is a result of complex combination of causes which can be put in to four categories: parental, family, child and environmental factors (Goldman, Salus & Wolcott, 2003). Parental factors Parental factors comprise of substance abuse, intergenerational factors, personality, attitudes and knowledge, age (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2008; Goldman et al. 2003; Famularo et al. 1992). These are factors that are associated with the abusive parent perpetrators themselves. Substance Abuse According to research, parents who are alcohol or drug abusers are more likely to perpetrate child abuse than those who are not substance abusers. (Formularo et al. 1992). Substance abuse is known to trigger or accelerate the problem of child abuse. In the child maltreatment report of 2010, 26 states reported that 10.9% of the victims were abused by perpetrators under alcohol abuse while 18% were under drug abuse (USDHHS, 2011). Substance abuse tends to alter rationality or emotional control of individuals as well as aggregating stress making them to abuse children. Another report also found out that parents with substance abuse problem not only are they likely to mistreat their children but are also likely to reject court ordered services and treatments (Formularo et al. 1992). Those perpetrators under substance abuse are likely to be engaged in domestic violence and children get involved in the process or suffer emotional abuse for watching such acts. Substance abusers are also at risk of neglecting their children due to self-neglect; they value drugs more hence use their finances on drugs rather than on children’s needs (Kaplan et al, 2009). Furthermore, substance abuse can influence parenting styles especially on how to discipline children leading to child abuse. Another issue worthy noting is the prenatal exposure of children to drugs and alcohol by the mother during pregnancy. This can have a negative effect on the development of the child. However, the USDHHS (2008) notes that only a small proportion of children who are exposed to prenatal exposure to substances are negatively affected thus a relief for those working for child preventive services and the community as a whole. This does not mean that the problem should be allowed to continue as it can become a major problem in future. It is also worthy noting that substance abuse problem is a result of various other family problems such as poverty, stress, domestic violence, and mental illnesses. It is therefore difficult to detect if the abuse is a result of the substance abuse or any other cause. This makes it difficult to formulate the right strategies to deal with the problem appropriately (Goldman et al. 2003). Intergenerational Factors Intergenerational factors refer to passage of behavior across generations. For example domestic violence victims are likely to become abusive parents. The child maltreatment report of 2010 showed that 25.7% of victims of child abuse were perpetrated by a domestic violence caregiver (USDHHS, 2011). Further research indicates that one third of the children who witness domestic violence are more likely to suffer emotional abuse and become abusers in adulthood than those from stable families (Goldman et al. 2003). Those who abuse their spouses physically are also likely to physically abuse their children in the process (Newton & Gerrits, 2010). This is because children have the tendency to interfere with domestic abuse especially when it involves the mother thus are also physically abused. Domestic violence may take the form of denial of finance to the spouse either due to dependence on them or to exert their superiority. In such a case, children are at risk of being neglected as they depend on their parents for survival (USDHHS, 2011). Domestic violence may also lead to sexual abuse of the child especially prostitution and pornography as they run away from home and risk trafficking. Though there is a correlation between parental history and child maltreatment, research also shows a considerable percentage of individuals who were abused and neglected as children but do not end up becoming abusers themselves. Two thirds of the individuals surveyed witnessed domestic violence in their childhood but were not abusive parents (Goldman et al. 2003). An in-depth research needs to be conducted to establish why some people become abusive later in life whereas other do not. As Pandey (2007) puts it, it all depends on how well the abused children are able to cope in life especially in handling their emotions. Those who think that the parents were unfair are less likely to be abusive in future while those who blame themselves for the abuse are likely to be abusive parents (Formularo et al. 1992). Personality Psychologists always try to explain the behavior of individuals using various theories. It is believed that individuals possess certain characteristics that put them at risk of becoming perpetrators or victims. According to Goldman et al (2003) the most frequently identified characteristics on those who are abusive include low self esteem, poor emotional control, anxiety, depression and the belief that events are caused by forces beyond one’s control. Such an individual would justify his/her actions by blaming factors beyond his/her control. Low self esteem makes an individual to be under pressure of gaining control so as to make up for the lost esteem hence they become abusive (Newton & Gerrits, 2010). However, there is no set of traits that can be singled out as causes of child maltreatment. Some psychologists would say that people act out of free will thus severe punishment should be applied on perpetrators. Age The age of the parent or caregiver also matters. Research indicates that young parents are more likely to abuse or neglect their child than older parents. For example, the child maltreatment report of 2010 indicate that one third (36.3%) of unique perpetrators were between the age of 20 to 29 and are mostly women (USDHHS, 2011). Age is associated with other factors such as unwanted pregnancies and stress. Unwanted pregnancy is a common cause of child neglect as the mother is not ready to take care of the child. Furthermore, the parent is not emotionally prepared to handle a child leading to low mother-child relationship quality and consequently emotional abuse (Formularo et al. 1992). Family Factors This includes family structure, domestic violence, unemployment, poverty, and social isolation. The family structure entails the type of family whether single parent, divorced parents, or child lives with both parents (Goldman et al. 2003). Children of single-parent families are at a higher risk of being neglected, physically and sexually abused. This is because single parents have lower finances thus vulnerable to stress and inability to meet the needs of their children. In cases where one parent makes all the most important decisions, then child abuse is likely to occur. Socially isolated individuals are at high risk of being perpetrators. These people have no kind of support from family and friends thus bear all the burdens alone leading to stress and abuse. Those who are not socially isolated can get support in childcare hence have better chances of dealing with stress thus reducing the risk of abusive behavior (DePanfilis, 2006). Stress Social stress is also a contributing factor to child maltreatment as it affects the functioning of the family. Stress can result from unemployment, poor housing conditions, large family size, illness, death, having a disabled person in the home and the arrival of a new born baby (Rycus & Hughes, 1998). Stress puts pressure on the parent or caregiver who may not be able to handle it hence resulting to abuse to release some of the tension. Furthermore, being unemployed means the parent is unable to provide for the needs of the children which may cause them to suffer emotionally. If they live in poor housing conditions, this may be very stressing and may prompt the parent to result into alcohol or drug abuse thereby increasing the risk of child maltreatment (Wilson, 2007). There is increased violence and crime in such areas thus increasing risk of abuse. Child Factors Children are vulnerable to abuse due to various factors such as age, and disability. Research indicates that infants are at a higher risk of being abused than teenagers since they are dependent on parents for survival. For example, in 2006 the rate of documented maltreatment was highest for children between birth and 4 years of age (15.7 victims per 1,000 children of this age in the population) and declined as age increased (USDHHS, 2008). Children with disability are also at risk of being neglected due to their status or being physically and emotionally abused. They are unable to defend themselves from abusive parents hence suffer the consequences. Environmental Factors Environmental factors include poverty and unemployment, social isolation, and community characteristics. Kaplan et al (2009 p. 3) notes that poverty is strongly associated with child maltreatment especially chronic neglect. Those children from families who earn an annual income of less than $15,000 compared to those who earn more than $ 30,000 are 44 times more likely to be victims of neglect. On the other hand, not all poor families subject their children to maltreatment. This does not mean the wealthy are not subjected to neglect but they are good in hiding the abuse since they live in isolation and thus have less contact with social agencies (Wilson, 2007). Poverty makes people to live in deplorable conditions such as poor housing, inadequate transport, social exclusion and stigma leading to emotional problems which can trigger child neglect and abuse (DePanfilis, 2006). Effects of Child Abuse Child maltreatment has negative consequences on the social, physical and cognitive development of children and is a cause of many health conditions thus making such exposure to abuse a very costly public health and judicial concern. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) study is a good example of how child abuse can affect one’s life in future. The study findings indicate that certain experiences are major risk factors for leading causes of illnesses and death (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). Such adverse health effects include substance abuse, depression, diabetes and cancer. The physical effects of child maltreatment include fractures, risk of developing cancer, violent crimes leading to arrest, and shaken baby syndrome among others. Severe physical abuse can lead to bone fractures rendering a person incapable of handling ones tasks; it may lead to disability or death. It can also lead to minor bruises and cuts and increased risk of arrest for violent crimes (DePanfilis, 2006). Though sometimes it may not be serious, the pain remains edged in a child’s mind. Physical abuse can also result in shaken baby syndrome whereby the baby develops permanent neurological damage or death. Physical abuse can also lead to delayed or impaired brain development. This in turn affects the cognitive, academic abilities and language deficit. Children between ages 1 to 4 yrs are at a risk of brain impairment as opposed to those who are not abused. Child abuse can also result in physical health later in life. The ACE report shows that those adults who experienced abuse in their childhood are at risk of developing asthma and high blood pressure (CDC, 2011). Besides physical effects, exposure to child abuse can also result in psychological disorders. The children may develop mental illnesses due to emotional abuse. This may lead them to engage in substance abuse and also have retarded growth. The children may also suffer from stress and depression which can affect their cognitive development. Most of these children do not perform well academically as they cannot concentrate on their studies. They also suffer from lack of self-esteem and a feeling of guilt or shame especially if they suffered sexual abuse. Sexual abuse may lead to unwanted pregnancies, sexually transmitted diseases as well as sexual dysfunction. Teenage pregnancies are a result of sexual abuse by a close family member and can have adverse effects on the teenager later in life. These girls become single parents at a young age leading to stress and consequently child neglect or abuse thereby completing the intergenerational cycle of abuse (Goldman et al. 2003). Some of the victims also consider committing suicide due to guilt and mental illnesses. Studies also reveal a relation between childhood abuse and re-victimization later in life (USDHHS, 2011). Most of those who report neglect cases to the child welfare systems have previously been under child preventive services or care homes and reunited with their families for a period of about 5years (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2012). Child abuse is the common cause child fatalities. According to Child Welfare Information Gateway (2012) child abuse statistics for 2010, the national estimates for children fatality from abuse and neglect was 1560 children. This means 2.07 children per 100,000 children died at a rate of 4 children every day. However, this figure may not represent the true picture since according to National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS), some cases are underreported. This is due to lack of a standard definition of what constitutes child abuse and also variation in death investigation systems and training (p.4). There is also ease of concealing child abuse, inaccurate determination and lack of coordination and cooperation among different agencies and jurisdictions. According to the child maltreatment report 2010, the most vulnerable children are those aged 1-4 years. Those below 1 year accounted for 47.7% of deaths while those below 4yrs accounted for 79.4%, 9-11 years was 3.8% (USDHHS, 2011). The highest number of perpetrators was parents with the mother being the main culprit (30%). Strangers accounted for 8.3% of fatalities. The most common form of abuse leading to death was neglect 32.6% with medical neglect being the least accounting for 1.5%. Boys have a higher fatality 2.51 per 100,000 boys than girls 173 per 100,000 girls in the population. African Americans fatality is 28.1%, White 43.6%, Hispanic 16.6% while multiracial comprised 4.4% and unknown race less than 5% (USDHHS, 2011 P.71). Prevalence The most prevalent form of child maltreatment is neglect. However, as noted earlier it is not easy to tell what constitutes neglect due to cultural diversity. Neglect represented 78.3 % of confirmed cases of child abuse, physical abuse 17.6%, sexual abuse 9.2%, and psychological abuse 8%. This is according to the child maltreatment report 2010 (USDHHS, 2011). The definition used in the report for child abuse was “any recent act or failure to act on part of parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of harm” The use of a uniform definition is vital in designing preventative strategies and for the purposes of prosecution. The report indicates that most abusers are well known to the child. These include parents, family friends, neighbors, and babysitters. About one third of the abusers are related to the child according to CDC (2011). More than 80 % of abusers are parents, 6.1% are relatives of parents. Race and ethnicity of victims in 2010: 44.8% of all victims were White, 21.9% were African American, and 21.4% were Hispanic (USDHHS, 2011 P. 24). Drug abuse accounted for 18% of cases, alcohol abuse 10.9% and domestic violence 25.7%. Prevention There has been a lot efforts aimed at preventing of the spread child abuse as well as helping the victims and their families. For example, to deal with the increased fatalities and inconsistencies that make it difficult to develop appropriate interventions, multidisciplinary and multiagency child fatality review teams were formed (CWIG, 2012). The federal government passed legislation through CAPTA which requires states to include information on Child Death Review in their program plans. This was to foster improved interagency communication, ensure follow-up and partnering with other agencies in dealing with the problem. The child welfare system ensures that families have enough information on how to get help and also offers assistance to poor families so as to deal with child neglect. However, cases of chronic neglect are a burden to the system (Goldman et al. 2003). The child preventive services is also a crucial agency in tackling the problem. It assists the victims and their families by ensuring the offenders are prosecuted, the victims taken care of and ensure smooth reuniting with their families. The office on child abuse and neglect also launched a child abuse prevention initiative to create awareness of the issue and enhancing cooperation to promote child protection (USDHHS, 2011). A number of treatments are also available for the victims such as therapy to help them cope with emotional trauma. Parents are also given therapy sessions and advice on child care. However, the most important thing is for the whole community to develop the right attitude towards children and cooperate in prevention by offering support to one another. Conclusion Child abuse is a very serious problem in society and is a major cause of health problems and death. There are four major categories of child abuse: neglect, physical, sexual and emotional abuse. Neglect accounts for the highest percentage of abuse 78.3% and the major cause of death in children. It is nationally estimated that 1560 children died from abuse and neglect in the year 2010 according to USDHHS. Most cases go unreported due to ease of concealment and lack of a uniform definition of child abuse. Most of the abuse is perpetrated by biological parents with the mother being the most abusive. Younger children below 4years have a higher risk of victimization than older children due to dependence and helplessness. Those who perpetrate abuse are aged 20-49 as opposed to older people. The main causes of child abuse include substance abuse, domestic violence, poverty and unemployment, intergenerational cycle and stress among others. Child abuse can lead to serious physical injuries, mental illnesses, sexual dysfunctions, and death. There are various efforts that have been put in place to prevent as well as eliminate the vice but so far there is still a long way to go. 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