Cultural and Ethnic Discrimination - Case Study Example

Critical Theoretical Analysis Introduction A Philippine hero once referred to a social concern as an illness, a social cancer to be specific. Indeedsocial issues are very difficult to cure; some of them have been present even before the world wars, but continue to exist up to today. Even in a world economy of transformation and technological development, the roots of social concerns still exist. They still hurt and disadvantage others, still kill others and rob others. This paper is indeed very interesting, as it is every individual’s duty to take part in the cure, lest social concerns are bound to live, even outlive this current generation. In this paper, I particularly discuss the social problems related to cultural and racial discrimination; an introduction of the problems that surround it, why people need to know about them, the social theories that aid in understanding them, what these theories have contributed to the understanding of the social problem and what possible researches can be undertaken to examine it in depth. Main Body An Introduction to Discrimination Vernellia R. Randall, an American writer and law professor defines racial discrimination as treating “differently a person or group of people based on their racial origins” (Randall, 2010). She added that racial discrimination necessitates the presence of power because discrimination “depends on the ability to give or withhold social benefits, facilities, services, opportunities etc., from someone who should be entitled to them, and are denied on the basis of race, colour or national origin” (Randall, 2010). The UN Secretary General defines discrimination as “any act or conduct which denies to certain individuals equality of treatment with other individuals because they belong to a particular group in society” and this may take the form of cultural and ethnic discrimination, racial discrimination and gender discrimination (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2002). Cultural and Ethnic Discrimination The case of Samoans in Hawaii is perceived to be a form of cultural discrimination as they are an “stigmatized ethnic group” (Richard Lempert). The researchers perceive the presence of cultural and ethnic discrimination when “members of particular ethnic groups who, in comparison to others from the same social class, are disadvantaged by the application of apparently legitimate criteria in a universalistic fashion" (Richard Lempert). The study of Lempert and Monsma made use of simple regression, with a dummy variable which tests the significance of discrimination. In the literary review it was found out that “cultural discrimination have been readily identified in education”, this is in connection with various studies that “culturally acquired characteristics children bring to school can affect can treatment and ultimately their success in educational institutions” (Richard Lempert). This particular case was adopted by the study in a different setting: an informal legal tribunal and tested the presence of discrimination. The study particularly found out that Samoans where more often mentioned as troublemakers in informal tribunal compared to other groups such as Laotians, Vietnamese and Tongans (Richard Lempert). The researchers also found out that this is related to their poor economic status: lowest per capital income, low educational attainment, high unemployment rate (Richard Lempert). Racial Discrimination Racial Discrimination among foreign students in Australia is a growing concern. As more foreign students enter Australian universities, more of them suffer from unjust treatment from fellow Australian classmates (Sanders). “Such cases range from the simple unlikely glances when one wears accessories or clothes that are not ordinary, to the more severe and complex situations of being beaten up and verbally abused” (Sanders). In terms of gender, female foreign students are found to be more “bullied” than their male counterparts for the reason that they are relatively weaker to defend themselves (Sanders). Further investigation by the author led to the conclusion that the root of the discrimination lies with the issue of global terrorism, thus more Asian students who usually come from Muslim countries receive this inappropriate treatment (Sanders). Gender Discrimination When gender discrimination is mentioned, it is almost always the case of women being disadvantaged compared to men. This is particularly observed in developing countries where culture dictates discrimination against girls, especially in the things that they can do or achieve. Julie Mullins of the Children In Need Inc. listed down some of the common discriminatory acts against girls in the developing countries: girls confined to being household servants, dowry, neglect, infanticide and sex selective abortion, labor abuse and sex trafficking. Sex trafficking is noted in some Asian countries such as Thailand where families are forced to send girls to cities or nearby town who can easily get prey to sex traffickers (Mullins). Why it is Important for People to be Aware of Discrimination Things concealed are hard to remedy. Just as social concerns are deemed to be illness, it must be exposed, analyzed and properly cured. This is also the case of discrimination, where public awareness is necessary. A recent study conducted in New Zealand found out that that too many people believe that racial discrimination still exists so that there is a need to mobilize people so they can be concerned about it (Mail, 2010). In an effort to curtail discrimination, Nelson suggested how important knowledge about discrimination is what people can do to send it: a. Encouraging people to share stories of discrimination, harassment and abuse (in the workplace, education sector, health sector and communities). b. Countering the relatively high incidence of discrimination against Asian New Zealanders, through government, businesses, school and community action. c. Ensuring the safety of international students, including effective reporting mechanisms, through the education sector, police and local government action. d. Police collection of data on racially motivated crime, as recommended by the United Nations Periodic Review of New Zealand and the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. e. Formally welcoming and acknowledging international students and temporary migrant workers in communities. Source: (Mail, 2010) Conscious efforts of the society to identify discrimination and battle it also increases the government’s efforts in enacting laws and policies that counter discrimination. Policies such as more education given to girls in order to provide similar opportunities to both boys and girls can be very effective and liberating. Laws against discrimination can also be triggered by increasing the awaress of discrimation cases. Social Theories on Discrimination Pierre Bourdieu , a French sociologist and anthropologist who himself was “grandson and son of sharecroppers from a marginal province” in France used the concept of cultural capitalism to pursue social justice (Wacquant, 2002). His work mentioned of comparable instances as the examples of racism in this paper especially his experience of “class racism at wok in the French educational system ( (Richard Lempert cited in Bouidieu and Passeron 1979). His particular concern is “ the disavdantages students from particular social class (the pretty bourgeoisie) suffer through the universalistic application of the apparently legitimate criteris os educated elites” (Richard Lempert). In a book,The Logic of Practice “Bourdieu effects a Copernican revolution in the study of class and culture by abolishing the sacred frontier separating high culture from ordinary consumption” (Wacquant, 2002). “He demonstrates that judgment is not an innate gift but a socially learned ability that serves to wage denegated class struggles via the symbolic battles of everyday life and stances adopted in ‘fields of cultural production’. He reveals that social space is organized by two crosscutting principles of differentiation, economic capital and cultural capital, whose distribution defines the two oppositions which undergird major lines of cleavage and conflict in advanced society, that between the dominant and dominated classes (defined by their volume of capital), and that between rival fractions of the dominant class (opposed by the composition of their capital)” (Wacquant, 2002). This theory aptly describes the root of racism as defined by Vernellia R. Randall: the presence of power as there is a dominant power over a dominated one. Bourdieu associated the domination to the disparity in terms of capital ownership. “This theory of social space, group making, and symbolic competition is generalized in The Logic of Practice in which two modes of domination, personal and structural, are differentiated and their workings traced via the molding of the ‘body as analogical operator’ of practice” (Wacquant, 2002). Bourdieu had this eye for the social space that exists between the dominant and the dominated. He was ale to investigate and analyze the sources of this space and rightly attributed it to economic factors: the cultural capitalism. Zillah R. Eisenstein, is a Professor and Chair of Politics at Ithaca College is a social scientist who uncovered “the hidden sexual and racial politics of the past decade” (UC Press). She touched on the aspect of colonialism and cultural dominance of the West. Particularly pointing out that “it is imperialist for the West to think that bodily rights, or democracy, or humanity are singularized idea, explicated the most fully by the Enlightenment, or the West. Although there are Westernized form of each belief, these ideas are way too polymorphous to be reduced to their Western/imperial form. The body’s wish for autonomy flows from the polyversal meaning of humanity. No matter how multiple their articulation of bodily autonomy is, the desire to protect one’s body from harm does not have to be learned. The body is one’s own, however many ways ‘ownership’ may be conceived” (Eisenstein, 2004). Her idea of autonomy has vast contribution to the battle against domination and colonialism. It is literary battle against the desire of some to homogenize culture which in her very own words result to “cannibalizing others” (Eisenstein, 2004). In addition to battling dominance she made a clear distinction between unity and uniformity. Referring to the idea of Amartya Sen, Eisenstein believes that unity “must be expressed through the multiplicities of diversity” and that universalities is the “unitary significance of our diverse diversities” (Eisenstein, 2004). On the other hand, she made praises of Satyajit Ray who showed “deep heterogeneity of local cultures in order to build intercultural communication” (Eisenstein, 2004). How Social Theories help Advance the Understanding of Discrimination The two social theories mentioned above are indeed enlightening when the issue of discrimination is analyzed. Bourdieu one mentioned of the dominant and the dominated classes. On the issue of racial discrimination, the dominant class may be the Western culture and race who, with the presence of advance warfare and economy where able to force others to embrace their culture. They are those to have the “capitals” and thus economic power translated to social power. The gender discrimination is the conflict between the guys and the girls, the latter being disadvantaged and therefore dominated. It is both their culture and the personal will of the guys to take advantage that makes the discrimination exist. The understanding of Bourdieu’s theory leads us to see the social space, the difference and the conflict. Social theories such as these opens our mind to the reality, and more so allow us to analyze the root of the social problem and contribute in its solution. Eisenstein has such a courageous claim on unity and autonomy. Indeed, she is right. There should be no cultural hegemony and homogeneity, instead unity can be achieved through respect of out cultural, economy, ethic, gender and racial diversity. Her theory points us to the desire of some people to enforce their culture on others, proudly assuming that they are better and thus more important. This cuts to the very issue of colonialism, in which aspects such as culture and religion are imposed on the others. Eisenstein’s works are essential addition to sociological literature especially in liberating people from social bondage. Suggestions for Further Research and Action After a study of the social problems and social theories that explain them, the field of sociology remains to be a vast area of inquiry. Future researches can be done to improve both the field of sociology and more importantly the greater society. Researches on how discrimination are done by other cultures and races and why they persist despite efforts of the government through laws and policies, can be a very interesting thing. This is based on the assumption that discrimination still persist, and worse go unnoticed. An investigation of the depth of discrimination and the likely avenues where they are committed are a good line of inquiry. It would also be worthwhile to note how the disadvantaged or dominated groups cope with discrimination and how effective this strategies are to their survival. Conclusion Over-all, discrimination is a global problem. It is not only the disadvantaged group who suffers but in the end the dominant group will also do. In the study of discrimination, it is encouraging to see that there are those that attempted to explain it in theory in order to provide liberation to the dominated. This however should be carried into action as it is only with genuine efforts that the solution will be achieved. References American Association for the Advancement of Science. (2002). Retrieved April 29, 2010, from http://shr.aaas.org: http://shr.aaas.org/thesaurus/detail.php?tid=77 Eisenstein, Z. (2004). Retrieved April 30, 2010, from http://books.google.com.ph/: http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=rr3NA98FIEQC&pg=PA207&lpg=PA207&dq=Eisenstein%E2%80%99s+Against+Empire:+Feminism,+Racism+and+the+West&source=bl&ots=R7ZxkEd0K4&sig=4B9a9ktD_26ymS5XEvoZ94yizrM&hl=tl&ei=HH7ZS52gJ9GzrAft0_CwDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resul Mail, N. (2010, February 20). Retrieved April 30, 2010, from http://findarticles.com: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_8062/is_20100220/ai_n50197005/ Mullins, J. (n.d.). Retrieved April 30, 2010, from http://www.childreninneed.com: http://www.childreninneed.com/magazine/gender.html Randall, V. R. (2010, March 10). Retrieved April 29, 2010, from http://academic.udayton.edu: http://academic.udayton.edu/race/01race/race08.htm Richard Lempert, K. M. (n.d.). Retrieved April 29, 2010, from http://www.stanford.edu: http://www.stanford.edu/~mldauber/workshop/Lempert94.pdf Sanders, N. (n.d.). Retrieved April 30, 2010, from http://ezinearticles.com: http://ezinearticles.com/?Racial-and-Cultural-Discrimination---A-Growing-Concern-For-Foreign-Students-in-Australia&id=761445 The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (n.d.). Retrieved April 30, 2010, from http://www.eeoc.gov: http://www.eeoc.gov/facts/fs-race.html UC Press. (n.d.). Retrieved April 30, 2010, from http://www.ucpress.edu: http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/6262.php Wacquant, L. (2002, December). Retrieved April 30, 2010, from http://sociology.berkeley.edu/: http://sociology.berkeley.edu/faculty/wacquant/wacquant_pdf/PB-SOCIOLOGLIFE.pdf Read More