Predicting Infants Who Will Become Offenders - Coursework Example

Predicting Infants who will become Offenders Predicting Infants who will become Offenders Introduction Studies in various disciplines were conductedto determine predictive factors that would contribute to an infant or child to become a social offender later in life. Research reveals that some factors contribute for an individual to commit offenses such as family, environment, or economic status in life. Sociological studies try to find causation to social problems (Reckless 1941). And that it cannot be determined with certainty that certain variables used in the studies are really causative of specific social behaviour. The increasing studies on social interaction and behavioural processes focus on qualitative evaluation on specific cases (Reckless 1941) that cannot be applied with generality. Studies with children exhibiting antisocial personality deviance have been conducted that point out the strong connection of children below 11 years old having “persistent and pervasive aggressive and disruptive behaviours” tend to have antisocial life during adulthood (Robin 1966, cited in Hill 2003, para 1). Also, predictive studies conducted relate to young children who already manifest conduct problems which are associated with specific variables such as “ineffective parenting practices, discordant and unstable families, poor peer relationships and educational failure” Hill 2003, para 4). The expected antisocial conduct may therefore not truly reflect the relationship with the identified variables due to varying antecedent circumstances (Hill 2003). Prediction is achieved through deductive reasoning wherein confirmation of the prediction might prove the hypothesis to be correct, but still, further testing is required (Sociology 2010). Predictive Approach An infant is defined as a “child up to 2 years (24 months) of age” (“infant” MedicineNet.com 2001), or the period before a child walks and talks, or earliest stage of a child (American Heritage 2009, cited in “infant” thefreedictionary 2010). In Collins English Dictionary (2003, cited in “infant” thefreedictionary 2010), the term refers to a child below seven years of age. In psychology, infancy extends up to one year old and loosely extends from two to three years old (Marshall 1998). Sociology applies the predictive approach in determining the relationship of specific previous experiences of an individual to later attitude and behaviour. Various studies had been conducted on criminal tendency based on past experiences (Hickey 1991, cited in Larson n.d.). One variable identified to influence individual behaviour is family violence. Family violence includes parent violence toward children and vice-versa, violence of men toward women and vice-versa, violence of adult towards the elder person, and sibling violence (Loseke 2004). It was reported that violence seems to go up as income declines (Greenfield et al. 1998, cited in Loseke 2004), this seems to be bias (Loseke 2004) as this leads to the assumption by protective service workers that abuse in children occur when the parents belong to the lower class (Howitt 1992; Lane, Rubin, Monteith, & Christian 2003; O’Toole, Turbett, & Napka 1983, cited in Loseke 2004) and that child abuse in poor families are represented too much in studies by protective agencies (Loseke 2004 p. 39). Without focusing on the economic status of the family, whether being poor or rich, violence within the family (e.g. between espouses) affect the perception of an infant or child. The child may perceive that such violence is normal within a family or may imbibe the violent behaviour itself and manifest it to his/her peers or neighbors. Discourses by Sigmund Freud and George Herbert Mead explained that socialisation begins after birth and experiences during early childhood “bear a lasting impression on the individual unique personalities that everyone develops” (Brym & Lie 2003, cited in Larson n.d., para. 4). The social learning theory explores association of past experiences as a child of the offender’s aggressive behaviour (Larson n.d.). Trauma as a child, for instance, has a long-lasting effect during adult life (Hickey 1991, cited in Larson n.d.). Trauma can affect the stress level of an individual, ability to reflect and disrupt attention (Fonagy 1999, cited in Beech, Craig & Browne 2009). Attachment Theory The attachment theory that explores infant and mother bonding received criticism because it “overemphasises early relationship, oversimplifies the complexities of attachment categorisation, pays insufficient attention to interactional maintaining factors which influence continuity (and discontinuity), and does not account for the important influence of secondary attachment figures” (Brown & Wright 2001, cited in Beech, Craig & Browne 2009, p. 21). Thus, behavioural problems in “securely attached infants” can result if there is “unsupportive, inconsistent, uninvolved and confused” interaction between the mother and a child at three and a half years old (Beech, Craig & Browne 2009, p. 21). Secure attachment develops when the infant receives a response from the cry (Nelson 2009). With such response, the infant experience uncertainty that his/her needs will be satisfied (Nelson 2009). Irregular parent response becomes the basis for future relationships and bonding The theory of attachment posits that securely attached infants “do better in life, develop the capacity for intimacy, are able to trust others, and have better self-esteem” (Nelson 2009, para. 3). On the other hand, “insecurely attached infants” may not develop behavioural issues with “warm, supportive and appropriate” interaction of the child with the mother (Beech, Craig & Browne 2009, p. 21). It would then be crucial to determine the various circumstances affecting parent – child relationship to properly reflect the relationship among the variables being studied (Fonagy et al. 1997, cited in Beech, Craig & Browne 2009). Without a dependable response to satisfy emotional and physical needs, the infant develops an insecure attachment which may contribute to becoming an offender later in life (Nelson 2009). Abandonment, sexual and physical abuse, neglect or desertion of a parent may likewise cause insecure attachments to some (Nelson 2009). Insecure attachment has been proven as a risk factor in the formation of psychopathology in later life, its predictive value decreases when applied to the regular population (Green & Goldwyn 2002, cited in Beech, Craig & Browne 2009). While a secure attachment builds up trust to other people, insecure attachment creates mistrust, feeling of worthlessness and negative view of others and oneself (Bartholomew 1990; 1991, cited in Nelson 2009). As a result, the offender may employ coercion and force to satisfy “his needs for contact, while still maintaining his avoidance of intimacy” (Nelson 2009). Without a bond and intimacy, the offender passes the blame to the victim for the action and does not feel regret or empathy toward the latter (Nelson 2009). Family Background Family background proved to be vital in predicting sexual offenders later in life. For instance, neglect, violence and disruption in the family characterise offenders in this category (Haapasalo & Kankkonen 1997, cited in Beech, Craig & Browne 2009). Studies also show that the child molesters have the “highest levels of sexual victimisation in childhood, and these are associated with poor family relations” (Dhawan & Marshall 1996, cited in Beech, Craig & Browne 2009, p. 23). A correlation is also proven between sexual victimisation and sex offenders who started their “sexually coercive behaviour” during “adolescence rather than as adults” (Smallbone & McCabe 2003, cited in Beech, Craig & Browne 2009, p. 23). Conclusion As researchers reveal, a child being of tender age is like a sponge that absorbs visual and aural perceptions, both good and bad. At this age, the child, still in the developmental stage, is still forming his ideas about his/her surroundings and environment. Negative events around may be viewed by the child as proper if continuously occurring in the family. Still not equipped with in-depth analytical ability to scrutinise experiences and situations, a child cannot determine which stimulus is proper or morally justifiable. Thus, continuous negative experiences within the family is reinforced and justified in the child. The definition of an infant varies and considered to be the period from one to seven years old according to several sources. Generally, it is considered to be included in the childhood stage (Marshall 1998). The study on infant being below one year old and below seven years old is few. Most of the work focuses on the general term of childhood. The variable taken into consideration when infancy is specifically studied relates to attachment (i.e. secure and insecure attachments) which did not provide a consistent predictive outcome. Nevertheless, insecure attachment was identified as a risk factor for behavioural disturbance which may be considered as an offence depending on the political or legal jurisdiction. Several factors need to be considered in researches to predict the outcome and establish correlation. It was even posited that correlation between variables cannot sufficiently establish that particular experiences will lead a child to become an offender ((Hill 2003). Other variables taken into consideration as predictive factors are family background (e.g. neglect, violence) and sexual victimisation. But these factors are connected to a child whose cognition or perceptual capacity passed an infant who barely talks and walks, but may include one below seven years old. The former infant would not perceive and experience neglect or violence and may not be even aware when it happens. Thus, it is also necessary to have a definite definition of what is really should be considered as an infant. Having clearly defined the term and with the various disciplines having agreed that they will universally apply that definition in their studies, it would provide a clear distinction as to what group a particular study is undertaken. One factor that should be considered is the ethics of subjecting children to such kind of studies. Also, it should be considered on how the study should be conducted. In predicting an infant who might become an offender, the methodology to be used is interviewing adults who are already offenders and move backwards as to what happened to them during infancy. And if a sufficient quantity expressed a number of variables as the cause of what they became, they can be considered as predictive factors. But the defect of this approach is that the respondents might not remember what happened to them or their surrounding during infancy. Another approach to gather data is from the parents or relatives of the offenders, if they can be found or willing to divulge what happened to the offender during infancy. The parents might not reveal it even if they participated in the interview if they committed abuse upon the infant or abandoned it. A study can be conducted, however, upon children below seven years old or three years old who are already exhibiting offensive behaviours and solicit their experiences that were contributory to such behaviours subject to the ethical standards. Such studies must be group-specific and clearly identify such group as an infant. For instance, in a study on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the 221 subjects belong to the group aging from 7 to 18 years old (Fitzpatrick & Boldizar 1993, cited in Larson n.d.). The research methodology must be appropriately designed so that correlation can be truthfully achieved. Would it then be possible to predict infants who will be future social offenders? To a degree, it might be possible. If an infant grew up in a family of robbers, or in the neighbourhood of drug users and pushers, or the family survives from swindling other people, then an infant might become an offender. But this eventuality might not occur if the infant grows up and left the family or neighbourhood, or in his/her own volition, came to conclude that what he/she saw and perceive as immoral and against the law, the individual might not become an offender. But most probably, it would be hard to predict an infant, still at that early stage, if he/she would become an offender. More academic researches should be undertaken to have a strong argument in favor or against the hypothesis. References Beech AR, Craig L, & Browne K. 2009. Assessment and Treatment of Sex Offenders: A Handbook. Available from: . [Accessed 30 March 2010]. Hill J 2003. 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