Evolution of Military Technology - Research Paper Example

Evolution of Military Technology Archery The earliest form of military technology involves the use of archery in warfare. Archery, which is the use of arrows and bows, is considered one of the most ancient weaponry that was not only used for protection against attacks by enemies and animals but also in hunting for food. Archery was an important primitive technology for the Stone Age humans who become the first ancestors of human beings to use it as a weapon although discovery might have taken place earlier. This technology exploited simple mechanisms in their construction with pliant wood being used to make bows and then strung with a string that was made from animal gut. The arrow was also made from simple technology often requiring a straight body called shaft with the tip being made from stone while a feather was attached at the rear end of the arrow to create stability. This technology provided human beings with the ability to kill a target from a distance with a relatively higher degree of accuracy. This technology evolved with the discovery of copper, bronze and finally irons with these technologies replacing the stone tip of the arrow heads over time. Archery was military technology for armies in New Egyptian Kingdom and the Shang Dynasty as far back as 2000 BC (Woods and Woods 14-15). Archery was later used by other nations and kingdoms in Europe and Asia as they were used on the battlefields of Asia Minor with Eastern Europe, Egypt China, Japan, Mediterranean basin, Korea and Mesopotamia societies all developed their own adaptations of the composite bow. The domestication of horses was also an important occurrence for the ancient societies as they now had an effective form of transport. Transport by horse led to the discovery of the chariot which further improved transpiration and attack during war with the effectiveness of the chariot in war being one man controlling the movement of the chariot while a bowman shoot arrows at enemy soldiers (Woods and Woods 21). Trebuchets: Counter-Weight and Traction Trebuchet Another military technology that influenced the way wars were fought in the middle ages is the trebuchet. This is a machine used for throwing missiles towards the enemy soldiers or at their fortification. The working concept of a trebuchet involves long pivoted beam with one side being longer than the other. During its functioning, the short side is pulled down with the longer side of the beam being forced to rise rapidly causing the sling that is connected to the end of the long side of the beam to lash over thereby releasing itself and hurling the pellet it held. There are basically two types of trebuchet technology, the first one called a Counter-weight trebuchet where gravity is used to pull the short end of the beam down due to the heavy weight that is usually hang on this end (Rogers, DeVries and France 33-54). An earlier vision of this technology is the traction trebuchet whose power source is human muscle with team of men being used to haul down on ropes hanging from the short end of the beam. The best pictorial evidence of the use of Counter-weight trebuchet is provided by the Islamic scholar of the 12th century, Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi who was a military specialist for Saladin circa. The English armies also used Counter-weight trebuchets in various wars among them the siege of Stirling Castle in 1304 under the command of king Edward Longshanks with the trebuchets used during this siege being named “Warwolf". These weapons had various capabilities in terms of range and weight it curried with Charles VII of France ordering the construction of a trebuchet (coyllar) capable of shooting 800 kg of stone in 1421 (Rogers, DeVries and France 33-54). Gunpowder and Firearm The next discovery in weaponry is one which has had far reaching effects in the way warfare has been conducted ever since it was weaponized. The introduction of gunpowder as part of military technological evolution begins in ancient China. Chinese alchemists were attempting experiments they hoped would lead to the development of an elixir of life that would make human beings immortal. The components of these experiments included saltpeter, (also known as potassium nitrate), charcoal and sulphur. The experiments were conducted by Chinese Taoist alchemists through the funding made available from the Han dynasty under Emperor Wu Di (156-87 B.C.). Chinese Taoist alchemists were the major force behind the early invention of gunpowder as they combined sulphur and saltpetre and heat them in order to transform the compounds into a substance they hoped would reveal secretes of eternal life (Perkins 159). The breakthrough in for the alchemists came during the Tang Dynasty when an alchemist took 10 parts sulphur, 75 parts saltpeter and 15 parts charcoal that were mixed together that were then put on flame. Although the mixture was not determined to have any discernable ability to make human beings immortal, the unexpected result is what attracted more interests. Exposing this mixture to an open flame caused it to explode with a flash and a bang which burned the alchemist plus the whole laboratory in which he was conducting the experiment. Initial use of the gunpowder was in fireworks but not for long as the Song Dynasty applied the concept in military forces as early as 904 A.D. during this period, gunpowder was used in flying fire, which was forms of small rockets with other applications including primitive hand grenades, land mines, poisonous gas shells and flame throwers (Perkins 159). The discovery of gunpowder and its subsequent application in military technology led to further development in cannon technology. The first artillery pieces used together with the gunpowder discovery were rocket tubes constructed from void bamboo stems in addition to the development in the metal industry which saw the bamboo shoots being replaced with casts made of metal. The Chinese attempted to keep these discoveries to themselves for fear of losing the advantage in military warfare that the gun powder gave them to other nations. Consequently, the Song dynasty banned selling of gunpowder to outside China in eleventh century but this did not prevent the technology from spreading outside China as it spread along the Silk Road to India, the Middle East, and later on to Europe (Glick, Livesey and Wallis 211). With the discovery of gunpowder and continued development of cannon technology, it was only a matter of time before firearms entered the world of military technology. The earliest forms of firearms was based on a large thick metal tube which had one end closed (representing the breech) and one end being opened (the muzzle). In order to shoot, the gunpowder was ignited using a shouldering ember or a torch with the rapidly expanding gases which resulted from explosion of the gunpowder throwing a projectile from inside the barrel. However, it took almost another century for the development of an individual hand held firearm to be developed in the form of the Hand Gonne of the fifteenth century. This weapon was developed in the form of small cannon with a touch hole for ignition but its use in battle was greatly affected by the fact that it was unsteady. The weapon required the handler to prop it on a stand then support it with one free hand which could hold it against the chest while the other hand touched a lighted match to the touch hole. The shooting range was also limited with a maximum of approximate thirty to forty yards only a possibility (McLachlan 32-33). Due to the limitations of the earliest forms of firearm, the next centuries were spent by researchers in the use of firearms trying to develop a steady weapon that could be more reliable in battle. These efforts included among others the development of a reliable method of igniting the gunpowder, rapid reap shots and enhancement of accuracy when aiming at a target. This basically represented a period where importance was placed to the efforts to discover an ignition system that would be better than lighting the gunpowder using a smoldering ember or a torch. Consequently, research in firearm technology focused on three components, the lock, stock and barrel. The stock represents the wooden holder that holds the barrel to allow the solder to fire the gun whilst having it on the shoulder or in one hand while the lock represents the mechanical set-up used to ignite gunpowder with the chamber of the barrel this is exemplified by the mechanisms in matchlock made in the 1400s (Hendrick, Paradis and Hornick 34-35). The matchlock solved the problem that arouse when the solder had to use hand cannons which were ignited using a length of slim cord that would continue to burn when ignited from one end. The matchlock rifle used an arm known as serpentine on the gun to hold the burning cord in addition to having a mechanical system that made it possible for a trigger fixed underneath the lock to be pressed thereby lowering the match to the touch hole. The touch hole was also modified to include a small holder for fine gun powder that ignited first sending out flames through the hole to fire the main charge in the barrel. Following the development of the matchlock firearm, the next military technology in this area involved the development of a much more complicated system in the form of the wheellock developed in the 1500s and was the first to include the concept of sparks which was produced by striking flint on surfaces made of steel. For the wheellock, the lock had a wheel with a saw-like edge that was fixed to a spring that was tightened using a key called a spanner and the system included a piece that resembles a hammer known as dogshead and which held a piece of pyrite rock. The wheellock was fired when the dogshead descended onto the edge of the wheel freed by a pulling the trigger a processes whose result was sparks dropping into the pan lighting the gunpowder. The new system provided by the wheellock rifle provided an advantage to the user as the problem of the smoke raised by the smoldering cord was solved by the new concept that depended on creation of sparks to ignite the gunpowder. Additionally, the new technology made it possible for the holder to use the firearm without constantly checking whether the smoldering slow match was still lit. However, the mechanism under which the wheellock operated was quite rare making the weapon a reservation of very few wealthy and the royal class (Hendrick, Paradis and Hornick 35). The continued development in the firearm technology resulted in shift of focus to the improvement in accuracy during shooting. This was achieved by borrowing the concept used in archery where it was determined that fletching feathers on the back of the arrow at an angle made the arrow to rotate while moving after being released from the bow. This rotation contributes towards improvement in hitting the target. To create a rotational flight for the bullet, the gun barrel was cut with twisting movements creating grooves though the internal length of the barrel. The consequence of these grooves was the spin that is created as the bullet moves out of the muzzle. It is the concepts of the grooves that resulted in the development of the rifled firearm based on the alternative references to the grooves such as rifling, and "rifled muskets" or "rifles." The rifled firearms therefore ushered in a new dawn where guns aimed at improving accuracy even at a greater distance between the shooter and the target. An addition to the grooves has been the introduction of the notch at the rear of the barrel in addition to a post being placed at the front. Ensures an open sight at the top of the front sight post is brought into line with the target (Babits 13). Naval Technology After the discoveries and developments in gunpowder leading to various forms of rifles and guns, there was a shift towards naval technology. Naval technology is part of the oldest military technology that human beings have used for centuries. The naval ships of ancient periods were powered by human beings who paddled the warships through the ocean and seas with slaves being the most preferred source of energy to propel the ships. However, the next generation of military technology in the naval sector saw the introduction of steam ships. In the US the first steam ships to be used in military engagement was during the Civil War with the steam powered ship replacing sailing fleets. The source of energy for these ships was coal that was used to power boilers producing steam pressure necessary for the engines of the ships. The US had launched its first steam-powered a ship in 1807 but by 1860 the navy was still dependent on the sailing fleet. Although steam-powered ships presented the sailors with a number of advantages such as increased speed, they also came with specific challenges to the navy. The challenges included the need to have extra skills that will effective in case the ship developed a mechanical complication while sailing. Additionally, steamers did not have enough space for carrying coal making it necessary for the ships to have fuelling stations within the waters or at the coastline (Sussman 96-99). Multiple armored gunboats were used in the United States Civil War with the USS Monitor being developed with revolving reinforced gun turret which made it possible for the ship to involve targets from any angle. The first clash between ironclads occurred in 1862 where the Monitor and CSS Virginia confronted each other in the aftermath of the CSS Virginia’s attack of a Union blockade. The result of this battle was that neither ship did any significant damage to the other leading to conclusion that a solo ironclad was capable of destroying an entire unarmored fleet. These ships continued to gain prominence with most of the ironclads being made from both wood and iron until the 1870’s when steel shipbuilding commenced (Sussman 96). During the Spanish-American War, steel ships were used by the US Navy which proved successful as they were able to sink the Spanish fleets without losing any US Navy ship. The continued success of the US navy led the British to invest in furthering their naval power leading to the creation of a battleship named HMS Dreadnought that combined a number of technological advances including steam an all-steel hull, turbine engines in addition. The dreadnought proved advantageous during battle as they improved the distance over which battles were fought with this distance ranging from about eleven miles to covering the visible horizon. This shifted naval war strategy as it become paramount for one to spot an enemy ship first then place their ship at an advantageous position in order to gain an element of surprise over the enemy. During the First and Second World Wars, countries were concerned with building of ships that could combine the power of Dreadnoughts and the speed of battle cruisers while also allowing for heavier armor and bigger guns (Hough 4). Another major development in the naval industry has been in the making of submarines with the first to feature in a war being the Turtle created by David Bushnell for the Revolutionary war. However, the this technology proved unreliable at the time due to major failures such as being unable to plant a bomb on the hull of British Admiral Richard Howes flagship Eagle in New York Harbor. However, the most successful investment in submarine building was by John Holland who made several unsuccessful attempts to get his designs approved by the U.S. Navy from 1875 to 1888. When the U.S. Navy became interested in adding submarines to its fleets, Holland won the competition set for the best design of a new underwater vessel. The first vessel for Holland to work on was the Pluger but after a number of challenges, the project was determined to be unattainable leading Holland to begin working on another submarine called Holland VI. To make the VI a success, Holland developed a combustion mechanism that depended on gasoline for above water cruise while under water operations were made possible by having a generator which produced electricity to run electric motor (Bishop 2). A German scientist called Rudolf Diesel was also developing another underwater vessel at the time Holland was developing his Holland IV with his most successful undertaking being the development of an alternative to gasoline as a source of energy. The alternative fuel developed by Diesel for his vessel had a higher stability while the fuel could also be stored safely. The engine developed by Diesel did not require the creation of electric spark to light the fuel making his engine economical in terms of fuel consumption while also being safer cruises on the surface. The success achieved by Diesel did not represent an end to further development of submarine military technology since there was still the need to develop a vessel that relied on a single source of energy for both surface and underwater voyage (Weissenbacher 382). This was made possible by the discovery of nuclear energy which made it possible for the underwater vessel to be powered by use of single energy source. It was the American physicist Ross Gunn who begun investigations into the potential benefits of a submarine powered by nuclear energy with Phillip Abelson sketching the working concept of such a vessel. The nuclear energy was to be used to heat water creating steam that power turbines turning the vessel’s propellers. The nuclear powered submarines had additional advantages as they could travel for long without the need to refuel as is the case with Holland and Diesel’s engines (Weissenbacher 472). Aviation Technology Initial interest of human beings in the air as part of space where the military could gain advantage over the enemy involved the use of kites and balloons. The use of manned kites in both Japan and China for reconnaissance was later adopted by the Americans during the American Civil war as well as in France during the Napoleonic wars in 1870 where hot air balloons were used for military purposes. Continued investment in the aviation industry has seen great strides in coming up with military aircrafts to serve different functions during times of war. Aircrafts were first used for military purposes during the world war one since it was only in 1903 that the Wright brothers successfully got their first aircraft for a first flight. They then secured a contract to build aircrafts for the US Army in 1908 paving the way for military exploitation of the technology (Werrell 1). During the First World War, aircraft technology for military purposes developed quickly with the unarmed aircrafts being defended by crew who had firearms and small hand bombs. This was boosted by the development of lighter machine guns that were perfect weapon for aircraft. This is the period that saw the making of early bombers such as the Gotha bombers with the capacity to carry up to 500 kg of bomb load. During the Second World War however, the use of aircrafts in military engagements was increased with the monoplane becoming the main design. Fire power and speed of the aircrafts was also improved through development of the propeller driven fighter such as the British Typhoon. Jet fighters were also developed before the end of the war with examples of aircrafts such as the German Me 262 and British Meteor being used. However, fighting air to air battles still relied on cannons and machine guns with occasional use of unguided rockets against large bombers (Pavelec 126). After the second world war came the cold war which saw the arms race intensify between the two super powers, the US and USSR with their allies also being involved with bolstering their defenses in case of an attack. Among the areas of interest during this period was the development of the jet aircraft in the 1950s and 1960s with focus being on flying fast and at and higher altitude. It was thought that this was a strategic importance since the jets could be used in dropping nuclear weapons while also developing interceptors that could stop such attacks. Another development over the years has been the use of helicopters which were used in both the Korean and Vietnam wars. There was also the development of the Gunship which is a new form of helicopter loaded with cannon machine guns and rockets. The spy planes were also developed for conducting reconnaissance with the SR-71 Blackbird and U-2 spy plane being examples of faster military aircraft (Dunstan 5). The end of cold war reduced occupations with the arms race agenda leading to shift in the investment in military aviation. Focus has now shifted to the prospect of developing air power that does not need astronomical military expenditure with hi-tech low man power planes being preferred. The aircraft technology has shifted into development of planes with single pilot while the role of a navigator is taken by computer automated systems. Research into flying planes with the help of fibre optic control system has made aircrafts better suited for their military functions based on their ability to create agility for combat aircraft. Modern aircrafts such as the American Osprey has shown the ability to be flexible for a helicopter that covers increased range and speed. In recent years, focus has been on pilotless aircrafts which has the capacity of reducing the number of causality in battles. Development of unmanned aircrafts has been in form of drone technology which is based on longstanding research. However it remains to be seen whether development of larger plane that can fly without a pilot can be achieved in the near future. The development of unmanned aircrafts piloted remotely by use of computers will reduce the cost of warfare where the most expensive component is the human pilot (Zaloga 39-42). The development in military technology to unmanned aircrafts could be the indicator that human engagement directly in the battle field might continue to reduce. Future wars will involve cyberspace attacks where enemies seek to hack the systems of the opposing side. Cyberspace warfare will be fought on the basis that almost every aspect of human engagement will be connected to a computer. Consequently, hacking into the main database of an enemy will result in paralyzing every aspect of the nation’s systems, from the industries to automobiles and other essential components of life. Other future developments could include the use of robots in military engagements where a significant number of troops on ground. 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