Backchannel Responses in Japanese-English Encounters - Essay Example

Backchannel Responses in Japanese-English Encounters Introduction With globalization rocking the modern world, more and more people from differencing cultural and linguistic backgrounds are sharing common platforms. These platforms call for close interactions and as being part of such spaces, modern-day individuals are required to gain practical skills, for engaging in effective intercultural communication. This engagement calls for not just disregarding one’s personal perceptions of culture but also accepting world views and being lenient towards them. It is with this view that this paper looks at backchannel responses within intercultural communication. The paper opts to study the interpersonal dimensions of intercultural communication. Taking the listeners’ point of view, it attempts to understand the use of verbal and non-verbal responses or backchannel responses in relaying to the speaker, understanding and attention. Given that the speaker and the listener belong to different backgrounds, the paper explores the evolving differences that present themselves, in responses across different language, gender and cultural contexts. Since communication takes root in feelings and ideas and manifests itself in behavior, the paper reviews existing research literature and examines if backchannel responses, in the intercultural context of English and Japanese encounters, have played any role explicitly or implicitly in improving communication between the two groups. Analyzing cross-cultural interactions, its value addition to intercultural communication is also studied. The paper then critically scrutinizes convergence and divergence codes among the two groups and tests it in the background of the communication accommodation theory. Investigating into the speaking skills of the listener, the paper construes, that the non-native listener in a conversation with a native speaker, needs to use verbal and non-verbal backchannel responses, informatively and contextually to avoid misunderstanding brought-about by local and foreign interculturality. Finally, the paper concludes by connecting backchannel responses and its usage to the modern day and age. Literature Review Understanding Backchannel Responses Charles C. Fries, a renowned American lexicographer and grammarian, was one of the first known researchers to reveal backchannel responses in a published work. Later on, the study of backchannel responses was taken up by researchers from a variety of disciplines - communication studies, sociology, linguistics and psychology. Since each discipline approached the subject differently, they provided diverse terminologies for the concept of backchannel responses. While Fries used expressions like, ‘listener’s responses’ to refer to backchannel responses, Kendon in his paper on social interaction, termed it “accompaniment signals” (Kendon 1967, p. 23) and Schegloff another linguist used concepts like, ‘non-primary turns’ to explain these responses. The term, ‘backchannel’, however, was coined by Victor Yngve (1970) in his paper tiled, ‘On getting a word in edgewise’, presented during the sixth regional meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society. Defining the term, he said, “The passing of the turn from one party to another is nearly the most obvious aspect of conversation… The distinction between having the turn or not is not the same as the traditional distinction between speaker and listener, for it is possible to speak out of turn and it is even reasonably frequent that a conversationalist speaks out of turn… because of the existence of what I call the back channel, over which the person who has the turn receives short messages such as “yes” and “uh-huh” without relinquishing the turn” (Yngve 1970, p. 568). Backchannel responses refer broadly to, verbal and non-verbal responses of a listener in a conversation, dependent highly on language and cultural contexts. These responses seek not to dispute or defy the speaker but instead convey understanding and attention. Bettina Heinz drawing upon works of different researchers, classifies verbal backchannel responses as, “short verbal utterances…assessments…sentence completions, brief requests for clarification, and restatements…and short questions and answers, exclamations, and attempted interruptions” (Heinz 2003, p. 1117). Non-verbal backchannel responses identified in existing literature include, “head nods, head shakes, smiles, eye contact/gaze, shoulder shrugs, gestures, and changes of glance…and laughter” (Heinz 2003, p. 1117). Being an attentive listener who produces appropriate backchannel responses at the right time is very essential in cultivating a good dialogue. Senko Maynard (1989) in her study on Japanese backchannel responses found six functions for these responses: as a continuer; as exhibiting understanding of content; as a demonstrator of compassion towards speaker’s judgment; as a representative of agreement; as signifying strong emotional retort; and as a contributor, offering corrections and applying for clarification. Other researchers during the course of their study have found similar such functions which correspond to the role played by backchannel responses in constructing effective communication. Cutrone believes that backchannel responses have a “supportive function” (Cutrone 2005, p. 243). They comprise of two different kinds of function, that of an evaluator and of a signal of continuation. Gardner (1998) reflecting on use of “mm”, “yeah” and “mmhm” noted, that while “mmhm” functioned as denoting continuation in a dialogue, “mm” referred to a weak form of acceptance, finally “yeah” he deduced referred to recognition and acceptance of ideas of the speaker. Patterns of Backchannel Responses Whatever be the functions of backchannel responses, researches in intercultural communication have noted that they tend to diverge and converge around language, gender and culturally bound contexts. Depending upon the context, verbal and non-verbal backchannel responses tend to differ in frequency, their role in conversation and length. Thus, it becomes essential to study and understand the patterns of backchannel responses, if one wants to critically study interlocutors in conversation. For the purpose of this paper two kinds of backchannel response patterns are reviewed, the first being between different cultural and language constructs and the second between different gender groups. House and Kasper (1981), in their study on politeness markers in American and German speech, established that Germans were considered to be more direct and aggressive than their American counterparts, while stating requests or making complaints. Among the German population that spoke English as a second language, House and Kasper (1981) found significant evidence to suggest that native English speakers found them impolite and their verbal language rude. Ron White (1997) scrutinized backchannel responses in the American and Japanese cultural perspectives, and brought out that the backchannel responses produced by the Japanese in daily conversation were thrice as high as an English-speaking American. There also appeared edifying cultural differences between the two cultures, regarding respect and facial expressions. Similarly, Wannaruk (1997) while studying casual phone conversations of the Thais and Americans discovered that Thais employed the use of backchannel responses more regularly than Americans and it was most used to signify understanding of the speaker’s thoughts. Li (2006) in her study of 14 categories of backchannel responses, among Canadian/Canadian, Canadian/Chinese and Chinese/Chinese speaker groups, found that cultural differences accounted for significant disparity in backchannel responses among the various groups. While the Canadian/Canadian group demonstrated the lowest frequency of backchannel response, the Chinese/Chinese group displayed the highest; the Chinese/Canadian group fell in between the two groups on the continuum. Thus, it can be safely assumed that language and cultural constructs play a significant role in the production of backchannel responses among the diverse societal groups. Analyzing patterns of backchannel response usage among different genders, it is noted that, women use these responses much more recurrently than men do. This phenomenon was explained by Fishman (1980) in the socio-psychological perspective as the female tendency to support male conversations in view of their lower power equations in everyday communication. Maltz and Borker (1982), however had a different viewpoint, they elucidated on this pattern as being an appearance of empathic manner of communication. This theory was further supported by Coates (1993) who, upon reviewing various researches on the subject found that on an average, women were found to be more courteous and accommodating in a conversation as compared to men, who were thought to be dominating and disrupting. This she accounted for women’s use of questions and backchannel responses and men’s lack of it. Janet Holmes in her book, ‘Gendered Talk at Work’, outlined female and male communication styles and stated that while female styles comprised of, “facilitative”, “supportive feedback” and “conciliatory” features, the male style consisted of “competitive”, “aggressive interruptions” and “confrontational” (Holmes 2006, p. 10). Use of Backchannel Responses in Intercultural Encounters Due to the different ideologies in communication and relationships, English and Japanese backchannel responses vary greatly. LoCastro (1999) in his study on fragmentation in Japanese noted that Japanese used much more backchannel responses than the Americans; he proposed a functional perspective for such usage. He argued that the Japanese language had developed from socio-cultural values and cognitive influences, which allowed for regular use of backchannel responses to ensure harmonious and accorded communication among its populations. Giving the example of the usage, “aizuchi”, he stated that in Japanese conversation, this term was used to refer to backchannel responses. Not using enough of this expression in everyday conversation, risked the individual being termed ill-mannered and boorish. Also, Angles, Nagatomi and Nakayama (2000) noted that Japanese backchannel responses occurred at grammatical junctures, for e.g. after a verb, “kara” (because), or a conjunctive, “ga” (but), thus at times producing simultaneous talk. However, native English-speakers were overly cautious of interrupting their interlocutor’s conversation, since it was considered rude. They used backchannel responses in a conversation only during points which signified grammatical closure of sentences (Maynard, 1990). Given these differences, the paper contrasts backchannel responses of Japanese non-native English speakers and native English speakers, in the background of their effect on intercultural communication. Maynard (1997) in his study among Japanese non-native English speakers concluded that due to the lack of inherent knowledge of backchannel responses among an English audience, Japanese speakers used backchannel responses which reflected their own socio-cultural environment. However, these often result in miscommunication and misunderstanding in an intercultural encounter. Mizutani (1982) noted that the backchannel responses used by Japanese non-native English speakers were often inferred by native English speakers, as signs of impatience and disinclination to engage in conversation. Frequent and untimely interruptions were seen as demands for quick termination of communication, thus, representing the exact opposite values for what it was meant. Another study by Zimbardo et al. (1990) reflected on the reticent and reserved backchannel responses of the Japanese non-native English speakers and studied it in the context of ‘shyness’. He deduced that such responses within a native-English speaking environment may be interpreted as a sign of apathy. On the other hand, this would not be the case if native-English speakers understood the Japanese concepts of “wa” or “omoiyari” which forbade its people from engaging in disagreements or discordant communication. Pino Cutrone (2005), in his case study of Japanese-British dyads, examined 8 native-English speakers from England and eight Japanese non-native English speakers, born and raised in Japan. Making use of three methods of data collection – interviews, observations and questionnaires, he analyzed that the way in which Japanese non-native English speakers used backchannel responses, it was prone to have a negating effect on intercultural encounters. The more repeatedly the non-native speakers used these responses, the more they were found to be edgy and disagreeable. Often, the native-English speakers expressed annoyance on being interrupted by backchannel responses which sought to convey incomprehension, lacked variety, portrayed uneasiness in using English and revealed avoidance to speak in a conversation. Implications Achieving effective communication between different intercultural groups has always been a challenge. In the context of the Japanese and English, this becomes tougher given the extreme differences between the two cultures. When meaning is exchanged between people of these two groups in an interpersonal basis, complex and multilayered processes begin to play. Since the two cultures vary greatly, the meanings inferred from backchannel responses also vary greatly. Often, the intended message from one culture does not reach the other culture. Misunderstanding caused by misinterpretation, misperception and misevaluation lead to problems between the two groups. Hence, while studying the backchannel responses of a non-native Japanese speaker, differences should be assumed until similarities are understood. Behavior of Japanese should be seen through the eyes of the Japanese and their logic and rationale understood from the background of their culture. This paper implies the need for such sensitivity. Discussion Upon critically analyzing backchannel responses in English-Japanese encounters, it is understood that the Japanese culture and social contexts have a huge role to play in backchannel response usage. An individual’s experience, learning, socialization and enculturation, mould their preference for receiving and constructing backchannel responses. Thus, when intercultural communication is practiced, cultural contexts should be taken into account by both the speaker and the listener. Sensitivity and patience should be used in such encounters and no antagonistic attempts should be made to impose one’s culture on the other. Another interesting fact that most researchers noted in their study of English-Japanese encounters, was the relation of negative terminology in correspondence with backchannel responses. While a lot of studies believe these responses to facilitate smooth intercultural encounters, speakers, who failed to understand the cultural contexts of the listener, found these responses to be either irritating or representing disinterest. This negative relationship can be righted only with the understanding of use of backchannel responses, within the English context by the listener. Thus, it is not enough to just learn the English language; its social capital also needs to be internalized. Communication Accommodation Theory The communication accommodation theory gains significance in the light of examining new-age Japanese immigrants who are coming to English-speaking countries for continuing educational goals, exploring economic possibilities and furthering business aims. In an interpersonal context, backchannel responses from the Japanese listener, should feed the poignant, cognitive and conversational needs of the English speaker. This is suggested so that those, immigrant speakers can pass as ‘normal’ members of the English society. Conversely, due to the fact that the two groups come from different cultural backgrounds, this often does not happen. Japanese principles of reserve, contextual messages and contained communication, find few takers in a direct and exaggerated English culture. In the analysis of English and Japanese backchannel responses, Eli Hinkel (1996) found that native Japanese speakers while learning US standards of English, recognized the proper pragmalinguistic behaviors that accompanied the learning but they constantly compared and evaluated them in the light of Japanese norms and found them difficult to adopt to. Speaking Styles and Skills Conversations are a collaborative method of interaction and the listener is a dynamic co-participant, who with the effective use of backchannel responses can change its course. Backchannel responses influence the speaker-listener relationship and are used to create and shape cultural differences, through acts of speaking. Backchannel responses have a supportive role to play while encouraging a speaker’s speaking skills; this is referred by Coates as “high involvement” style of speaking (Coates 2003, p. 111). The interruptions and responses given by the listener portray dominance in a conversation power equation but at the same time depict sustainability of the speaker’s ideas. Often, the style of speaking adopted by the listener, establishes their role and position in society. Frequent monosyllabic usage of backchannel responses in Japanese casual conversations convey understanding, acceptance and conformity with the speaker’s ideas and also promote further speech. In different contexts backchannel responses convey different implicit and explicit meanings, affecting speaking styles. This is well seen in the case of the Japanese and the Americans, who consider their speaking styles to be reserved and direct, respectively. Speaking skills of the listener are projected not only by the verbal responses s/he provides to the speaker but also by the non-verbal responses meted out. It is about a non-native speaker, informatively and clearly conveying to the native speaker, understanding and attention, within their cultural context. Such a structured approach if used in the teaching of intercultural communication can go a long way in testing, consulting and establishing the listener’s competence in second language learning. Conclusion This paper is a holistic work, which analyzes backchannel responses in an intercultural environment. It establishes socially acceptable backchannel responses of the two different cultural contexts under study – Japanese and English and perceives how the face of intercultural communication is sought to change, in the coming times. Backchannel responses according to the paper, can not only shape a conversation but can also shape the interpretations that stem from it. This is clearly seen in today’s technology adept world, where backchannel responses have found new meaning in social media like Facebook, Twitter and the like. Here they shape interpretation of conversations and convey pleasure, happiness, approval, censure and condemnation, through its various usage. To conclude, backchannel responses of a non-native listener help create his/her identity, they help speakers to reflect and construct images of ethnicity and culture, within a conversation. Hence, it is has a valuable and powerful role to play in society. Read More