Social Exclusion and the Future of Cities - Essay Example

Social Exclusion and the Future of Cities Introduction Social inclusion is has been defined in different perspectives, depending on the different views of social theorists. Corey (2002) defined social inclusion as a counter action against social exclusion. It is presumed to have a goal of dealing with the problems that generate deprivation of part of a community from accessing facilities that they need for quality life to be accomplished. Social inclusion is usually a positive aspect of the society since it helps to alleviate many social problems and dissatisfaction. It promotes actions such as; equal education and employment opportunities for all, health services and housing among other factors that may affect the quality of life if the public does not access. Richards &Bergin (2000) argue that the social exclusion comes as a result of diversity among members of the public. Some people tend to emphasize on superior characters that they possess over others, which leads to a division in the society with certain members of the society being looked down upon. Social inclusion seeks to motivate the people to appreciate diversity in the society and utilize the different talents possessed by different individuals to cope with their own weaknesses. Dalton et al. (2007) argues that in a society that practices social inclusion, the members have a sense of value and self-worth. Their lives are full of dignity and satisfaction, and they are incorporated in the community systems that define its membership. For example, all people are involved in the community’s social and economic activities, they have an equal right of participating in community politics among other activities. Social inclusion is a significant factor in the mental health of a community. This paper examines the relevance of the concept of “social inclusion” for social work practice with adults experiencing mental health difficulties. It presents a narrative of the background and origin of social inclusion, the theories of social inclusion as well as policies that enhance the practice. Background and Origin of Social Inclusion Social inclusion emerged in the background of value based interventions towards maintaining clear goals regarding improvements of public welfare. Denissen et al. (2008) argues that it is a practical human development approach to facilitate social welfare that is focused on elimination of risks and barriers to social inclusion. The foundation of the strategies for social inclusion remain inclined towards recognizing and appreciating diversity as well as recognizing the shared experiences and ambitions for different people especially among families that strive to accomplish the basic needs as well as children who need basic education for their future well-being. The background of social exclusion is not only based on the idea of integrating outsiders in the mainstream or the ideology of a social divide in terms of the mainstream versus the marginal groups. Rather, it is based on the closure of the physical, societal and financial gaps that disconnect the people. It goes beyond reducing these gaps in the society to a more focused strategy of ensuring that these gaps do not exist. Communities globally have continued to evolve in terms of behavior and inter-personal relationship. Since the emergence of communities, diversity has been present among the community members as a result of the genetic constitution of individuals, occurrences that change the way of life, mix-up of people from different social, racial, cultural and political backgrounds as a result of globalization among other factors that generate differences in the society. The concept of social inclusion emerged as a strategy to alleviate the problems created in the society by social exclusion (Dalton et al. 2007). The industrial revolution led to the development of classes in the society, with some rich capitalists remaining at the top, the middle class comprising of those who were able to secure well paid employment and the working poor who could barely meet their needs through the meager wages earned from non-standard employment. Corey (2002) argues that there is a tendency for human beings to form links depending on the likeness of their individual needs. This tendency follows Maslow’s hierarchy of needs whereby those at the bottom of the hierarchy make efforts to meet their physiological needs. In their struggle, they have a lot in common and interact much in their daily undertakings. The same happens as the groups move up the hierarchy. These groups are significant in social exclusion since those higher in the hierarchy tend to comprise the ruling class which disregards the needs of the groups lower in the hierarchy. The sentiments of the lower groups are rarely included in the policy making process. The socially excluded groups have always been dominated by the minority, poor, and the disabled amongst other people with special needs. The mainstream group has always tended to ignore their needs, which has always maintained a division between among communities in many countries. The emergence of the welfare state played a significant role in the growth of the concept of social inclusion (Richards &Bergin, 2000). Many governments took charge of enhancing the reallocation of wealth after the industrial revolution to reduce poverty, which was viewed as a major obstacle to development. It was believed that even though the industrial revolution led to improvements in the living standards of the people, inequality increased in the society especially the ever increasing gap between the rich and the poor. There was need to ensure that welfare distribution was checked to avoid the consequences of a covetous group getting furious over the differences. Moreover, many people were offended by the displacement and the denial of the sense of ownership of their land where industries and urban centers were developed. The masses were separated and forced to abandon their conventional ways of life that they preferred to give room for development (Denissen et al. 2008). As Power & Wilson (2000) observe, the masses had to seek a way of getting a fair share of the state resources, some of which they had given away unwillingly to allow industrialization and urbanization. It is therefore clear that the masses needed a welfare state that could help in balancing the interests of all in the nation. For the welfare state to be successful in protecting and upholding the financial and social satisfaction among its members, social inclusion was one of the significant strategies that were identified. This development led to the evaluation of the state’s role in protecting the rights and interests of the citizens. The welfare state was widely accepted in the US, UK and many European countries, with social inclusion being earmarked as a way of enhancing the accomplishment of the goals of the welfare state. Initially, social inclusion was focused on certain aspect of the society such as unequal education and employment opportunities. The state was focused on eliminating the barriers that hindered the accomplishment of the needs of the masses. The International Labor Organization began emphasizing on social inclusion in employment and the well-being of employees. The immigrant workers were viewed as vulnerable in the labor market and strategies to include their interests in policy making were developed in 1980 (Hattie et al. 2004). The original understanding of the European Union regarding social exclusion changed to a more focused role of ensuring that social inclusion was not only based on paid work. Apart from recommending that the hindrances to employment be established and dealt with to ensure that social inclusion was accomplished in the labour market, the state was given the responsibility of making certain that even the physically and mentally challenged were integrated in the mainstream interests. The opinion of the people regarding mental health was discouraging. Generally, members of the public and parents tended to isolate their children from people with undesirable symptoms of mental health thereby instilling a negative attitude in their children. It was therefore common for children to grow with pre-determined negative judgment regarding mental health. Dalton et al. (2007) argue that the negative attitudes remain instilled their minds. These perceptions led to low self-esteem and feelings of rejection among the deprived members of the society with mental health issues. Majority of the members of the society viewed mental health problems as a disadvantage that hinders the affected persons from accomplishing the tasks that are assumed to be obvious. Even when people are prepared to assist their fellow community members with mental health issues, they did so while demonstrating that there is a clear difference between them and the victims. The social distance created by the people’s perception regarding mental health ends up generating social stigma among the victims of mental health problems (Coleman et al. 2009). Social inclusion was adopted by the welfare state to encourage a shift of the people’s negative view regarding mental health to one that was focused on demonstrating concern and the willingness to share even with the people who are disadvantaged in the society. As Richards &Bergin (2000) observes, social inclusion is a new concept that is still in the development stage. It has changed from economic to general well-being of every citizen, other than the conventional perspective of focusing social inclusion in terms of the working poor and the economy and those who were believed to be deprived of their rights. The contemporary social inclusion is focused on the responsibility of the recognized as well as the informal establishments as well as the social processes that lead to inclusion. Since 1980, efforts have been made to ensure that that there is significant participation among members of the society, and that the barriers to effective participation are suppressed. Public institutions have been motivated to identify and develop strategies to deal with the social barriers. For example, teachers in middle schools are concerned about the mental health of their students. In many circumstances, it is left for them to identify and decide the action to take to assist students with mental health issues. Watson et al. (2005) observes that the teachers spend more time with children in middle schools than parents do and therefore are better placed to understand their mental health needs. The attitudes and expectations of the teachers are significant in meeting these needs. Many governments support mental health schools to ensure that children with mental health problems are included and given equal learning opportunities. France is one of the countries that pioneered strategies to enhance social inclusion in the 1980s. The efforts were made after the realization that the policies for enhancement of public welfare had no positive impacts on the marginalized groups. The European Union encouraged member countries to adopt strategies for social inclusion. The UK and Ireland have been successful in dealing with the social divides that have been ever increasing as a result of the labour market dynamics and lack of requirements for social welfare that would take care of the diverse needs of the increasing diversity in the public. The countries focus on social inclusion from different perspectives including viewing it as a course of action and as a goal in itself (Hattie et al. 2004). The inclusion of children and adults adds value to their lives and significance in the society. In essence, when people feel appreciated and recognized for their role in nation development, they become even more willing to participate in nation building. Social inclusion has enhanced the accomplishment of major milestones in social and economic development in the US, UK and in many other countries that are members of the EU. Theories of Social Inclusion The social inclusion theory focuses on the various hindrances to free participation of individuals in societal affairs. The barriers may be social and financial as well as lack of access to essential information that is necessary for a person to fully belong to a community. According to Anthony et al. (2007), the hindrances are interconnected and therefore social inclusion tends to advocate for the strategies that incorporate all aspects of society that help in finding a solution to the manifold and multifaceted needs of each individual in the society. The approach of joined up activities is significant in accomplishing the provision of these needs. It entails the use of agencies that are harmonized and incorporated within the individual needs of all members of the society depending on his/her community and family background. Social inclusion was also viewed differently by Bourdieu. In his theory, it was viewed as a shared intention of supporting the expansion of a community that appreciates learning and supports the accomplishment of the people’s learning needs, especially among the marginalized groups whilst on the other hand considering the possibilities and limitations of the public policy agendas. The theory offers a significant approach that enables social inclusion in education through the application of the strategies of partnership. In spite of the significance of Bourdieu’s theory, it has remained underutilized in the policy development processes of governments in the contemporary welfare states (Power & Wilson, 2000). The theory of social capital as viewed by Coleman et al. 2009) presumes that the existence of social capital is based on the inter-relationships that exist between individuals in the society. This makes it difficult to clearly define social capital. However, its effectiveness is recognized in its potential to enhance creative undertakings, which is a similar role as that played by human capital. In essence, its recognition is accomplished through the development of strong inter-personal relationships over a period of time, which facilitates the attainment of personal goals that could barely be achieved by an individual separately. The inter-relationships are accomplished through various kinds of social capital, which include; meeting the expectations of others by accomplishing personal obligations and receiving favors from others when they meet their responsibilities, receiving and providing significant information that enhances future accomplishments, observing the shared values and customs as well as adherence to the sanctions of that are jointly developed by the community. Generally, communities set standards of conduct among members as well as norms that are significant in the maintenance of a lasting relationship. The internal arrangements are significant in the development of strong leadership that is informative in regard to the activities of the community. Denissen et al. (2008) observes that the beneficiaries of social capital in such an arrangement are individuals who participate directly and those who do not. Destruction of social capital can occur especially when the key people involved are in a weak relationship as well as divergent ideologies. In essence, the social capital theory as applied by Coleman et al. (2009) exhibits functionalist ideologies and therefore it might not work for communities that have no clear rules and norms that govern the character of members. Most likely, the theory applies in communities with strong customs and discipline as well as those with formal structures that exhibit a chain of command in the day to day interactions. Policy Measures to Enhance Social Inclusion In general, social inclusion helps to facilitate recovery from mental health problems. Policy makers need to seek information from psychiatrists who are better placed in making facts clear regarding the desired interventions of institutions and other concerned parties for inclusion of the mental health victims to be accomplished (Richards &Bergin, 2000). In the recent years, governments have been in the fore front towards promoting social inclusion of individuals with mental health problems. Many countries are engaging in efforts to deal with mental health issues through policy initiatives especially with the realization that social stigma is a major threat to mental health. Governments are engaging teachers in the efforts to reduce stigmatization of the students suffering from mental health problems. The strategies are concerned with promoting high quality among students and teachers, enhancing the well-being of teachers and maintaining self esteem among children. The teachers are involved in activities concerning the student’s mental well-being. The International Conference on Primary Healthcare resulted in a new approach towards promotion of mental health in schools. Teachers, parents and other stakeholders were expected to participate in the programs developed by schools regarding mental health. Australia is one of the countries that implemented the Health Promoting Schools approach. Students are being offered education regarding mental health and strategies to avoid stigmatizing those with mental health problems (Rowling & Ritchie, 1997). Breaking the Silence is also a significant program that has been developed in the US under the National Alliance on Mental Illness. The program has helped in combating stigma in the US schools through strategic lesson plans that teachers follow without engaging the services of experts. Many other countries such as Canada, UK and Finland have adopted the strategy, which has enhanced the identification of early warning signs of mental health issues. Members of the public are exposed to mental health experiences, which according to Wells et al. (2003) increase their awareness and understanding regarding mental health problems. They learn about prominent people who suffered mental health problems as well as people who are influential in the society, which helps in reducing stigma. The Canadian “dare to dream” program is also significant in the efforts to motivate citizens to seek mental health services. The blueSCI, Institute of Community Inclusion and “Stamp Out Stigma” among others in the UK are among the major organizations that promote mental health in the society. SEAL programs such as “SIP-AP” and “CARE” in the US have enhanced research regarding mental health in children. The Department of Medical Health in California has accomplished provision of mental health services in schools through LEAs, which are district schools that are funded through public finances. The PATH program in Ontario is also significant in providing mental health services to young people below the age of 18 years. In general, there have emerged organizations that are playing a significant role in supplementing government efforts in the recent years. They have enhanced provision of mental health services in many countries (Hazell et al 2002). Conclusion Social inclusion originated in the background of value based interventions. It is focused on enhancing community understanding and appreciation of diversity among members of the public. Minority and the marginalized groups comprise the majority in the socially excluded groups. The welfare state was significant in the emergence of social inclusion as governments sought to enhance the redistribution of wealth to balance the welfare of populations. Mental health has been one of the areas of major focus especially due to the stigma that the victims encounter in the society. Government policies have been directed towards enhancing social inclusion in schools as well as enhancing public understanding regarding mental health. France, UK, Canada and the US are among the countries that have developed policies to enhance social inclusion. Several theories such as the theory of social inclusion, Bourdieu’s theory and the social capital theory are significant in explaining social inclusion. In general, understanding the theories and applying them in policy development is significant in achieving the objectives of social inclusion. References Anthony, D. B., Wood, J. V., & Holmes, J. G. (2007). “Testing sociometer theory: self-esteem and the importance of acceptance for social decision-making.” Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, Vol. 43, pp 425-432 Coleman, D., Walker, J. S., Lee, J., Friesen, B. J., & Squire, P. N. 2009. “Children's Beliefs about Causes of Childhood Depression and ADHD: A Study of Stigmatization.” Psychiatr Serv, Vol. 60, 7 pp 950 – 957 Corey, K. 2002. “The mental health continuum: from languishing to flourishing in life". Journal of Health and Social Behaviour 43: 207-222. 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