Racial Discrimination and Health Problems - Essay Example

Name Professor Subject Date Sub-topic Page Introduction: 2-4 Research Methodology: 4 Research design: 4 Population and Sample: 5-6 Research Findings: 6-9 Interpretation of Findings: 9 Discussion: 9-10 Conclusion: 10 Recommendations: 10-12 References: 13-14 Introduction This research proposal is an endeavor to highlight the research question: “Does racial discrimination affects ones’ health as one gets older?” As policy makers all over the world are striving to formulate action plans and preventive strategies for stress related health disorders, especially in the context of an aging and geriatric population, this study plan is very relevant as it attempts to evaluate whether stress caused by experiencing racial discrimination may affect the health of aging persons. Emotional stress has been implicated in causation and /or further worsening of diseases usually seen in the later years of life such as hypertension, diabetes, ulcers and various psychiatric problems such as depression, anxiety and altered mood and there are ample studies and data to prove it. However, how much of this stands true for racism specific stress has also been the subject focus of many studies. Researchers found an association between perceived racism and ambulatory blood pressure in African American college students (Hill et al, 2007). Also at workplace, stressful racism places African Americans in a high probability group for the development of higher blood pressures (Health and Medicine Week, 2004). This clearly shows that racism can hasten the onset of hypertension even in younger age group and possible conclusion that can be drawn is that in an aging population the superimposed ill effects of stress induced by racism may be even greater. Similarly, women with higher stress scores who were subjected to high levels of internalized racism were at a higher risk of developing metabolic disorders such as obesity and diabetes due to altered hormone secretion (Tull et al, 2005). Studies have also attempted to assess objectively, mental and psychological implications of racism specific stress (Chakraborty et al, 2009). Further research necessary to reach a conclusion linking the association of stress per se resulting from experiencing racial discrimination per se leading to changes in the health status of people who are getting older is carried out as seen below. Various measured variables are compared with a control group in the same age group without any exposure to racial prejudice taking into account confounding factors such as lifestyle habits, presence of other risk factors such as smoking, environmental factors and preexisting or propensity for other age related diseases because of heredity. A cross sectional study collecting data at the same pointing of time in both the age groups is done below. Stress scores have been developed in relation to perceived racism and they will be utilized to collect data regarding the levels of racism-induced stress. Data pertaining to other variables including but not limited to BMI, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, blood glucose levels, stress hormone levels and mental questionnaires, which in totality may characterize the health status of a person, will be compared in the study group and the control group. It is probable that the stress theory based on neuro-endocrine mechanisms is responsible for a differential health status in the racism-affected aging populations. However, other variable such as poverty, lack of access to better health facilities, education and awareness, and other socio-cultural factors could be responsible for this as is universally applicable. Taking into account the bias induced by these confounding variables, exploration of racism induced stress as a causative/ contributory factor in the poor health of such populations is likely to put a new light on this issue and thus aid in making a difference to their present health status Research Methodology There have been significantly many forms of methodologies applied to gain deeper understanding on this issue. In this regard, particular attention is paid in terms of research design, population and sample, research tools, data collection, limitations of the study, data analysis and the results. Research design This research seeks for up to date information on the effects of racial discrimination to different people in different areas, paying attention to the following; Difference in stress levels between older adults and mental health difficulties Both young and old people with health difficulties who have been exposed to racial discrimination, and their levels of depression and anxiety Other factors that could contribute the same effects, regardless of the exposure to the researched causes. This is aimed at exploring several different search items, to ensure that a wide and full search in the topic is covered Population and Sample A new multicenter research in 2004-2006, carried out by the American Rand Corps, (ARC), on 5147 fifth grader children and their parents, from public schools in Los Angeles, Houston and Birmingham, Ala has found that suspected racial or ethnic discrimination is common among fifth grade students, and that it could be resulting to some negative effects on the students’ mental health. The methodology employed on the study, took the form of some 600 of children reported experiencing what they considered to be discrimination, where these encounters took place at school. It also sampled the number of children who reported feeling discriminated against. On the same note, a wider population was considered where racial and ethnic discrimination, as well as their effects on mental health was studied. This took the form of studying the adults and adolescents. The discrimination was particularly studied in the work places as well as the social places, where the perceived discriminated against people, were in constant association with their discriminators. The adults, who formed the larger percentage of the parties on the study (40%), came from different minority ethnic groups, ranging from low income earning employees, high income earning employees to unemployed people, were also sampled, if they perceived to be discriminated against. Dr Teresa (2007) also documented a research which was done by different researchers. The data collected from Detroit, where the researchers had partnered with the Community Organizations and health agencies to gather information had taken the form of blood samples from participants in order to measure allostatic load, where they compared it with the information they had collected on psychosocial, environmental (e.g. racial discrimination) and other stressors as well as disease rates in relation to their ages. They also used telemeters to look at the repetitive DNA structures that cap the ends of cell chromosomes. The effectiveness of telemeters in this study is that they shorten when cells divide, getting them the name “mitotic clock”, as they provide a better measure of age, stress levels as well as the number of years that a person has been alive. On the “Science Daily” (July 17, 2006), also documented a research study of the association between physical and mental health and racial discrimination. The study done at the Mailman School of Public Health, together with the Universities of Michigan, Alabama, and North Carolina. The research choose the methodology sampling individuals to see the relationship between racial discrimination and physical and mental health in African Americans, regardless of gender, skin color and socioeconomic indicators. The study mainly focused on young to middle –aged adults, and wide ranges of educational achievements as well as the income of the participants. (Dr. Teresa, 2007), Research Findings The study found that about 21% of the children who reported feeling discriminated against were more likely to have symptoms of one or more of four different mental health disorders as well as conduct disorders, namely; depression, attention hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. It was evident to see positive associations between perceived racial and ethnic discrimination within and outside of the school compounds, which could be detrimental to their mental health. From the data analyzed by the ARC, found that a larger percentage of African-American children (20%), Hispanic children (15%) and children identified as “other”, reported perceived racial or ethnic discrimination than the 7% of the white children. The same found out that the most consistent and strongest connection of discrimination with mental health signs involved symptoms of depression in African American, Hispanic and “other” school-going children reporting being discriminated against, a connection that was not so for the white school going children. There were other findings which included the following; In the 15% Hispanic children, the ones who reported perceived discrimination were more likely to demonstrate symptoms of each of the four mental health conditions listed above. Among the 20% school children of African American parents, those who perceived discrimination were reported to demonstrate symptoms of depression and conduct disorder Among the 7% white children, those who reported perceived discrimination were more likely to have mental health symptoms associated with oppositional defiant disorder as well as conduct disorder. Most young people from the races that are looked down into, were found to harbor beliefs that white suburbanites, without considering about it, often look down on the inner-city minorities as lazy and to blame for their problems, rather than victims of a system that leaves them unhealthy or disabled before they fully get to adult hood. A joint study by the Catholic University of Eastern Africa, and the University of Michigan on the aged people in regard to stress as a result of racial discrimination, and the resultant, detrimental health conditions, done on the body activity hormones in a community in Michigan and Detroit, found the following results (Dr. Teresa, 2007); In stressful conditions experienced by aged (in this case 55-75 years old, both male and female), people, resulting from being discriminated against, as a result of being from minority races, the body activates hormones that helps them in vital activities, e.g. to think, improve memorization or coordinate body metabolisms well. When the challenge or threat subsides, the stress system shuts down production. However, during periods of near-constant stress, the body experiences hormone overexposure, and eventually, a high allostatic load results into wear and tear, leading to cardiovascular diseases, and other diseases such as diabetes. It also accelerates aging; a phenomenon nicknamed “the biological Conceptualization of the weathering framework” Socioeconomic stressors such as racial discrimination that reduced victims’ chances of securing good employments induced telomere shortening, with hormonal responses that accelerated cellular aging and increased the chances for old age diseases such as diabetes and stroke. The findings also concluded that biologically, people from minority races are older that their counterparts from the dominant races of the same chronological age. The research at the Mailman school had the following findings;-75% of the participants had self reported racial discrimination common, but more common in men than in women i.e.78% in men and 73% in women, regardless of age, education and income. It also found out that many young adults gets into bad behaviors as they seek revenge against racial discrimination, which might be detrimental to their health. Such behaviors are, engaging in crimes, smoking, irresponsible drinking, prostitution as well as drug abuse (Columbia University's Mailman School of Public Health 2006, July 17). Interpretation of Findings There is a proportionate success in the levels of emotion-based ailments in the different age groups of minority persons who have experienced racial discrimination. It is therefore possible to interpret that racial discrimination causes stress in minority races, which in turn negatively affects their mental health, with more chances increasing with age when people becomes aware of the vice, regardless of their gender. Discussion The research could have been presented with some biases especially on the one from the Mailman School. According to Dr Teresa (2007), such an outcome could present a percentage of doubtful conclusions. This is because the specifically highly educated, more age advanced, and high income African Americans were more likely to report experiencing discrimination but have light skins when compared to their counterparts in the same research. Also possible is the fact that lighter skinned African Americans with higher positions in terms of socioeconomic positions could report discrimination as a result of the higher opportunities to be exposed to situations that they are discriminated or as a result of the fact that they are more aware of slight forms of discrimination. There could also be more limitations to the effectiveness of the research information because both exposure and outcome measures were self reported, as a result of the nature of the research, which had taken the form of a population-based sample. It was also possible that the people who reported worse health tended to report more discrimination. (Dr Teresa 2007) Conclusion To answer the question, “Does racial discrimination affects ones’ health as one gets older? A deeper and more profound study should be carried out by the stakeholders in this realm. This is on the basis of Dr. Teresa’s (2007), declaration that the Governments from the countries where racial discriminations and health disparities have been aware that something has been long overdue. For instance, the United States Government has been aware of that fact, since 1984, where the Department of Health and Human Services established a task force on Black and minority Health. Also in the year 2000, when the task force’s once per decade Healthy People plan was refocused to look deeply on the subject, where the Congress raised the National Institutes of Health Office of Minority Health, elevating it into “National Center on Minority Health and Health Disparities”. This is therefore a clear indication that racial discrimination to a certain level negatively contributes to the health of the aging people from Minority groups. Recommendations Based on the facts gathered in the research done, as indicated on this study, and as D.r.Teresa (2007), commented, “It is disturbing that children as young as ten have faced racial or ethnic discrimination, which could have detrimental effects on their mental health, now or as they age”. Research is inevitable, which should focus on racial and ethnic discrimination, and its effects on age, and the preceding symptoms of mental health conditions. It should also look into the mechanisms through which discrimination leads to poor health outcomes, as well as how these mechanisms might differ by race and health condition. It should also be important to check into how parents can discuss about school with their children’s healthcare providers during the regular check-ups. Based on the fact that most children in the study with perceived racial or ethnic discrimination reported its occurrence in the school, clinicians could address the issue as part of school related research. Proper legislation needs to be put in place to look into the vast disparities in discriminated cases and their health. With the possible limitations in the collection of data, especially the traditional methods, a public policy would be necessary, which would aim at addressing the stressors that bring about allostatic load. This would best come in the form of methods of managing stress on an individual level, paying extra caution to their age. With the better understanding provided by the research on the minority cultures and the subsequent illegal and detrimental practices, small policy changes are important in the Policy makers’ endeavors to correct the trend. This should take the form of many health-promoting programs aimed at young discriminated against people who smoke, which currently sees middle aged women, from minority races engaging in greater health dangers than teenagers. (Nelson 2000), On the issue of the “biological Conceptualization of the weathering framework”, it should take a policy that is beyond specifications. It should instead be a policy initiative that might cut down on weathering. Beliefs needs to be reconstructed, especially the assumptions of white suburbanites who, without considering about it, often look down on the inner-city minorities as lazy and to blame for their problems, rather than victims of a system that leaves them unhealthy or disabled before they fully get to adult hood. References Chakraborty et al (2009), Measuring perceived racism and psychosis in African-Caribbean patients in the United Kingdom: the modified perceived Racism scale. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health, 62, 66-79 Hill et al (2007). Perceived racism and ambulatory blood pressure in African American college students. Journal of Black Psychology, 33, 404-421. Racism-induced job stress linked to hypertension in African-Americans (2004) .Health & Medicine Week. Retrieved June 6, 2009, from http://www. Highbeam.com. Tull et al (2005). Relationships between perceived stresses, coping behavior and Cortisol secretion in women with high and low levels of internalized racism .Journal of the National Medical Association. Retrieved June 6, 2009, from http://www.highbeam.com.   Dr. Teresa (2007) Expounding the Study by University of California - Los Angeles. Mental Health Problems More Common In Kids Who Feel Racial Discrimination. Science Daily. Retrieved January 4, 1980, from http://www.sciencedaily.com­ /releases/2009/04/090427163825.htm Columbia University's Mailman School of Public Health (2006, July 17). Racial Discrimination, Mental and Physical Health. Science Daily. Retrieved January 4, 1980, from http://www.sciencedaily.com­ /releases/2006/07/060717105554.htm Nelson, T. (Ed.) (2002). Ageism: Stereotyping and Prejudice against Older People (11) 14-22 Bottom of Form Read More