Increasing or Restricting Andragogy - Essay Example

 The first problem that we may encounter in understanding and analyzing the development of adult education in the twentieth century is the problem of definition. There have been so many diverse definitions proposed by leading educationists and philosophers in the twentieth century in relation to adult or continuous education, that it is extremely important to isolate the sense in which the term ‘adult education’ will be applied in this study. This problem of definition is two-pronged. First, there is the problem within the nomenclature itself, problematized by both the terms ‘adult’ and ‘education’ that constitute it. Secondly, there is the problem of dissociating the term from within a matrix of related, but at more fundamental level, different terms like ‘continuous education’ and ‘andragogy’. What really adds to our problem in this respect is the fact that we have to approach this problem at a time when an unprecedented complexity within the social formation itself has rendered educational institutes and education, both in definition and practice, complex. Therefore, we have to take into account both the objective semantics of the term as well as try and locate it within a specific twentieth century educational context. Definition of Adult Education The term ‘adult education’ is a comparatively new one, coined much after it was actually in practice. It is a result of many years of evolutions, and its meaning, even now is far from simple and monolithic. Even as early as in 1927, Hall-Quest conceded the difficulties in defining the term. One of the biggest problems related to the definition of ‘adult education’ is, whether it refers to a set of methodologies by which ‘adults’ can be taught, or is it a holistic term that includes the general endeavor of educating adults in a specific way as well as a detailed study of government adaptation and subsequent implementation of policies that target the adults specifically as the subject of educational instruction. Theorists like Alan Rogers have defined adult education as a process ‘whereby anyone over 16 (or whatever) are treated as adults – capable, experienced, responsible and balanced people’. Such a definition has two major problems; first ‘adult education’ becomes synonymous with ‘andragogy’ thus affecting the semantic rigor of the term. Secondly, values like capability, experience and responsibility are more often than not terms defined by culture and there is no platform or parameter that is universally agreed upon, which makes the term can lacking in ethnographic rigor. It is therefore, important that we first clear the ethnographic tangle and then go on to arrive at a working definition of the term. Who is an ‘adult’? It is probably the first major question we have to answer before we get into any further exposition of the term. An adult can be defined in respect to age: affixing a cut-off age as in legal and administrative procedures. However, in all streams of study and human discipline this parameter is the least applied. There are various methods of measuring adulthood, which are not concrete and yet central to an understanding of the phenomena, across the world which can often differ, and at times even oppose one another. Adulthood, in the West, is often associated with the ideas of independence, to have one’s own principles and perceptions on life and the ability to live up to it. It is integrally connected to question of self-sufficiency and living on one’s own term – which by corollary, means an ability to satisfy one’s own desires. In a number of Oriental cultures, Japan for example, this itself can be a mark of juvenile world-view and immaturity, because in that culture it is the ability to submerge one’s own desires and to sacrifice them is what is counted as a true adult behavior. These dichotomies immediately place any ethnographic approach towards defining the term on slippery and problematic ground. Similarly there is little agreement between the adherents of the ‘developmental stage’ school of definition for whom adulthood is necessarily the successful journey through various stages of one’s life and the ‘Life Span/ Systems’ theorists for whom adulthood is defined in the terms of certain experiences like marrying, getting full-time employment etc. While Gilligan, Kiveinger, Perry and Fowler belong to the former school, Hayslip and Peyek, Goodnow, Tennet and Merrill belong to the later. Since little agreement appears to exist between the two groups, the only recourse remains to that of the legal/biological definition of adulthood determined by chronological age. Adulthood can be entered at any stage between 22 and 30, but most governments prefer 25 as the break-off age: and it is generally accepted by all administrative and legal parties. Although the determination of the age of 25 is not without its own share of problems, yet it definitely serves as a demographic convenience, and helps in rendering a certain degree of standardization and rigor to all studies related to adult education. We will stick to this definition of ‘adulthood’ in our paper. ‘Education’ on the other hand is a loaded term with multiple dimensions of semantic imports. R.S. Peters, the British philosopher has opined that educational institutions as a whole has become difficult to define. Thus definition sacrifices its purpose of encompassing a phenomenon to an isolation of core values. Governed by these theoretical substratum, education ideally involves the transmission of what is worthwhile to those who are committed to it; must involve knowledge and an active process of understanding; must be willing and voluntary. The presence of the voluntary aspect in adult education has given rise to the question of ‘andragogy’. Andragogy is a term that made a comeback after a century of academic isolation to define education typically addressed towards adults. Adults, unlike children who undertake a strong ‘teacher-lecture’ oriented educational methodology of learning – as represented in the Greek term of ‘pedagogy’, is more dialectic in nature. It refers to a continuous process of learning, not always for achieving well perceived goal of attainment of degrees and certificates (which, although, remains as a part of it in the form of recognition), but for self-improvement. It is highly general term, which is preferred by most theorists because it has a largest scope in relation to the term of ‘education’, freeing it from the confines of academic strictures. This paper will use the term ‘adult education’ both as a development of ‘andragogy’, but that development will be located within the particular field of government and formal application of programs and policies for the individual betterment of individuals over the age of 25, in turn leading to a betterment of society at large. At present, adult education as a term also includes vocational and academic trainings for seniors in search of playing a more meaningful role in society at large. These are guided by specific economic and demographic shifts in the world population, as has been discussed below. Pre-Twentieth Century Development in ‘Adult Education’ Adult education, or ‘andragogy’, is probably the oldest form of education, depending on the way education is defined. Jesus and Socrates are legendary prototypes of adult education - if education is defined in the broadest possible terms. However, if we stick to the definition of the term that we have agreed upon in the above paragraph, then we do not find much concrete documented and specifically directed works in the sphere except some disorganized and isolated attempts taken by monasteries, cathedrals and individual philanthropists. Even in those cases, education was largely religious, if not out and out theological and spiritual. That part of adult education is still popular. However, when it comes to secular education, we can probably use the attempts of Benjamin Franklin to secularize the old Puritan divine Cotton Mather’s idea to train and educate American adults as an important historical point of departure. Education imparted was largely oral and classes were organized in the form of dialogues. Commonly known as the ‘Leather Apron’, this attempt of 1727 by the Junto under the guidance of Benjamin Franklin remains one of the most significant pre-Twentieth Century attempts at adult education. Other important milestones at adult education before the dawn of the twentieth century include the firs lyceum at Milbut, Mass organized by Josiah Holbrook in 1826. It was important because it operated in the form of local study groups, and is usually considered to foreshadow the ‘home study’ schemes of adult education. The methodology involved was that of the lecture-forum. 1862 is a major year when it comes to early developments of adult education. It was the year that saw the beginning of the US Department of Agriculture and the Land Grant Act, which would act as a prototype in the later development of the institutional structure of the Cooperative Extension System in 1914. 1874 saw the development of the Chautauqua Institution at Chautauqua in New York. The high popularity of its adult education program went a long way in popularizing the entire scheme of study, and gaining a great degree of popular support. It continues to function even today as one of the earliest institutions devoted completely to the cause of adult education. Adult Education in the Twentieth Century A spate of events followed each other closely to give a great degree of importance to adult education. 1926 is an important year in the history of adult education in the West and the US. Morse A. Cartwright led the American Association of Adult Education (AAAE) to give an organized and structural visibility to adult education, turning it into a national movement of sorts. (Merriam, P. 222) For the next two decades, adult education in the US went from strength to strength in the entire Western world. Towards the 1950s, the need to acknowledge adult education as a specialized stream that needs training personals with a different and specialized set of skills came to be acknowledged. The Organization of the National Association of Public School Adult Educators came to be organized in 1952. Other important milestones in the progress of adult education included implementation of the Adult Education Act in 1966. 1973 is another important milestone in the history of adult education and its proliferation in the twentieth century. The International Council for Adult Education or ICAE was formed in this year at Toronto for the promotion of adult learning as a part of UNO’s sustainable development programs in the international civil societies. (ICAE, 2008) The ICAE meets annually at various venues to review its functions, set new goals and dispense awards to the deserving groups who have played an important role in the dissemination of adult education. It is a conglomerate of seven regional organizations that encompass all regions of the world. The role of the Non-Government organizations cannot be ignored in the development and progress of adult education. (Morsy, P.297) Operating all across the world, these organizations provide vocational and academic educations to all interested seniors. The legalization of adult education has also gone a long in increasing the scope and popularity of continuous and adult education. Most national governments have followed the lead in making adult education mandatory in certain respects. The laws governing adult education typically includes education, specialization, training and the learning of persons who have completed the mandatory primary schooling and who wish to acquire, refresh, expand and deepen their knowledge without having formal pupil or student status. Moreover, the education of adults in primary schools, vocational schools, professional secondary schools, grammar schools and higher professional school education programs is governed by laws regulating the respective fields, as well as by International and federal laws. Education in higher educational institutes is also governed by these laws. The proliferation of adult education is a result of quite a few sociological and economic causes that characterized the century. The average growth in the longevity has been a major cause. This has led to a steep rise in the world population, as well as a growth in the average number of seniors in working and active physical and mental conditions. The marked development in medical science ensures that more and more seniors are now able to play a meaningful role in human society than ever before. Most seniors opt for a lifelong learning process, thus inspiring a rapid growth in the sector of adult education. At the same time, the growing importance of academic education in various spheres has forced many adults to return to education even at a later age. However, the biggest reason behind the rise of adult education in the twentieth century is the way it got relocated formally within the bigger sphere of rural development and social betterment. This has largely been a two way cause effect process as the growing trend of adult education is not only due to longevity itself but it is also a proven fact that the gradually ongoing adult education promotes longevity. (Goldberg, P. 324) Adult education as a part of the larger issue of social and sustainable developed systems is best observed in certain countries outside Europe. Many non-European countries developed well laid out adult education plans in the years following the World wars and the gradual retreat of imperialism, giving political freedom to a number of countries. India, for example, was fast to recognize the importance of educating its adult population and implemented a number of well laid out government policies to bring its substantial older population within the folds of formal education. It typically included secondary and elementary level education in basic disciplines and was an important part of social benefit plans for the general betterment of the rural community. The development of adult education aimed for the betterment of rural standards follow typical models depending upon the educational requirements to go with the social, political and economic scenario of nations (Educational Documentation and Information, 1980), thereby complying with the multifarious goals of this initiative in different geographical settings. In this context Eduard Lindeman (1945) stated, “Every social action group should at the same time be an adult education group, and I go even as far as to believe that all successful adult education groups sooner or later become social action groups.” There are indeed effective rural projects for implementing literacy even in various parts of developed countries like the United States of America (Eric Digest, 2003 – 2005), though the initiative is mostly undertaken in the developing countries of the third world. With the vast rural structure in India, this became one of the most extensive adult education plans to be undertaken in history. One of the greatest achievements of adult education in the twentieth century is the relocation of the question of individual upliftment within the focus of social betterment. (Peers, P. 171 – 172) The approach of Boyd and Apps (1980) typically restates this concern in their three tier model for adult education. Empirically drawn, this model isolates the three transactional modes – independent, individual and group; three client foci – individual, group and community and three systems – personal, social and cultural. Although there have been criticism of this approach by critics like Carlson who opposed the concept of binding adult education within these conceptual prisons and stated that much of adult education occurred outside such frameworks; yet the two views basically complement rather oppose each other. The Boyd and Apps approach for the study and practice of adult education has been redefined in a number of investigations oriented in a way to provide critical treatments for the model. (Adult Education Quarterly, 1983) They represent the two major movements towards adult education in the twentieth century. One looks at adult education as a development but nominally different from the general perception of ‘andragogy’ – it is centrally connected to policies adopted by many national governments and supported by international organizations like the UNESCO in allowing adults a chance to pursue their academic ambitions and complete high school education at an age higher than the stipulated age limits in formal education. The other view promotes a wider view of adult education, which includes all methods of self-development both within and outside the academic structure. Because of all the reasons discussed above, the academia is now seriously concerned about the methodologies involved in adult education. Theorists are now operating clear modes of teaching-learning methods which are different from traditional instructional methodologies to address the specific needs of the adult learners. Adults bring something new to the learning process that is much different from students of an earlier age group. Adults typically bring in a lot of personal experience in their learning process, and are liable to assess every instruction vis-à-vis the wealth of experience that they carry with them. At the same time, the focus is high, being voluntary. There are specific advantages as well as disadvantages of learning at a higher age. There are indeed a number of distinctive features of adult education along with orientation techniques that make it different from standard instructional settings in regular academic programs. (Knowles, P. 30) Typically, adult education is more dialectic rather than lecture based, and warrants the use of a higher degree of student participation. Such a mode instruction particularly involves the use of team activities with focused group, brainstorming sessions, buzz groups, discussion panels and interactive seminars. (Walklin, P. 52) The term ‘andragogy’ mentioned above can also refer to this set of methodologies of adult training. This recognition of a different methodology and arriving at them is one of the biggest achievements of the twentieth century in relation to ‘adult education’. Conclusion At the outset, it appears to be clear that adult education has reached an all time high in the twentieth century. With government and international organizations taking a direct interest in andragogy, and thousands of NGOs chipping in to carry on the good work with lots of money pumped into the sector, it appears that adult education is reaching a height that it has never imagined before. However, the view may not be as simple, unproblematic and monolithic as it appears at the outset. There have been both endorsers and detractors of this. Let us, however, concede that adult education has scaled great heights in the twentieth century. If not so, even a discourse on the subject would not have taken place. However, at the same time it is important to take stock of the various supporting and oppositional views on the subject. It has been observed that both being with or going against the view is integrally related to the definition of the term ‘adult education’. Political and economic questions also get intrinsically attached to this debate, leading almost automatically to ethical and philosophical questions related to the way how adult education is dispensed across the world. Gordon Selman, for one, in his book ‘Invisible Giant’ raised questions on how the issue of adult education is tackled by educational institutes and other bodies, who receive a substantial amount of government grant for dispensing adult education. According to Selman, many aspects of the field of ‘adult education’ continue to be hidden. Although community groups received a great degree of public funds for dispensing adult education, the results of this education largely went unrecognized by the public. At the same time, adult education units working outside the structure of government grants continue to be somewhat disorganized. As we have already stated, the way we assess and grade adult education in the twentieth century is integrally linked to the question of definition. If, for example, we look at adult education at a more general level defined by the term ‘andragogy’, then we find that it has ancient roots and is nothing radical in the proper sense of the term. For the endorsers of the view that adult education has reached an all time high in the twentieth century, even if we accept the general definition of andragogy, the twentieth century played a very important role in formalizing and systematizing the methodologies of adult education. Detractors would state that the fact that adult education has been formalized and institutionalized has also brought along with it its own share of problems and apprehensions, with widespread political and economic maneuvering of the issue. Most significantly, however, one has to concede that the twentieth century, if not anything else, has successfully done one thing very successfully: it has attached the cause of individual betterment to the greater social cause of community upliftment, thus giving more relevance to the practice. It is the greatest legacy that the twentieth century developments in adult education have left for the coming ages. Works Cited 1. Merriam, Sharan B. and Brockett, Ralph Grover. (1997). The Profession and Practice of Adult Education: An Introduction. Hoboken: Wiley 2. Cookson, Peter S. (1983). The Boyd and Apps Conceptual Model of Adult Education: A Critical Examination. Adult Education Quarterly, 34, 48 – 53. 3. International Council for Adult Education. (2008). About us. Retrieved December 11, 2008 from http://www.icae2.org/?q=en/about 4. Bochet, J.-C. (1980). Education for Rural Development. Educational Documentation and Information, 54, 216. 5. Ferrell, Susan. (1990). Adult Literacy Programs in Rural Areas. Eric Digest. Retrieved December 11, 2008 from http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9217/rural.htm 6. Knowles, Malcolm Shepherd. (1984). Andragogy in Action. Ann Arbor: Jossey-Bass 7. Goldberg, Burton, Trivieri, Larry and Anderson, John W. (2002). Alternative Medicine: A Definitive Guide. San Francisco: Celestial Arts 8. Peers, Robert. (1998). Adult Education: A Comparative Study. New York: Routledge 9. Morsy, Zaghloul. (1994). The Challenge of Illiteracy: From Reflection to Action. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis 10. Walklin, Les. (1990). Teaching and Learning in Further and Adult Education. Glos: Nelson Thornes Read More