The Notion of Culture in the Context of Jihadism Counterculture - Essay Example

The Notion of Culture in the Context of Jihadism Counterculture Introduction This essay is about the application of the concept of culture to the issue of Jihadism or radical Islamism. In the current times, Jihadism has emerged as one of the most common forms of counterculture (Just 2015, 10). The significance of Jihadism as a form of counterculture is attributed to its violent nature and global outreach (Khosrokhavar 2015, 19). This essay examines three important things related to the application of the notion of culture to the issue of Jihadism. First, it defines the concept of culture. Second, the essay examines how the counterculture of Jihadism is constructed through the major components of culture. Third, the essay how different from the mainstream culture the counterculture of Jihadism is and whether it challenges or reinforces the status quo. The Notion of Culture Although scholars disagree about the exact definition of culture, there are specific attributes or characteristics that are considered critical for any valid definition of culture (Kendall 2016, 82). Moreover, these characteristics form broad tenets that are used to define what constitutes the concept of culture. Within the context of sociology, it is important to view culture as a subset of society. The concept of society is described as a group of people living in a geographically-identifiable area and sharing a culture (Macionis and Plummer 2012, 144). This implies that culture is one an important building block of the society. In general, culture is defined as the sum of the way of life of a people in any given society (Macionis and Plummer 2012, p. 144). The concept of culture covers all the aspects of life of people and includes the following: the material objects that the people in the society use, their values, behaviours, beliefs and practices (Macionis and Plummer 2012, p. 144). Moreover, culture is viewed as a collection of attributes, practices and values that develop over the course of time, influence the behaviours of individuals in the society and are passed down from one generation to another over the course of time (Kendall 2016, 81). What this means is that the processes of social and cultural development in the society are intertwined. Moreover, it means that as much as people are responsible for the development of culture over time, the culture that is finally established shapes the lives of people in the society as well. Jihadism Counterculture The counterculture of Jihadism can be examined by considering how the various major components of culture in general are represented in the counterculture. Culture is made up of the following components: values, norms, language, symbols, artefacts and practices (Kendall 2016, 81). These components, collectively form the material and non-material aspects of culture, are fully represented in the counterculture of Jihadism. Norms, mores and folkways collectively form an important component of culture. In general, norms are prescriptive or prospective expectations that are shared by members of a society and which are used to guide and regulate the behaviours and interactions of the members of the society (Macionis and Plummer 2012, 153). In this case, the counterculture of Jihadism has various prospective as well as prescriptive expectations that are shared by the members of the counterculture and which are used to regulate the behaviour of the members. For example, all the members of the counterculture are expected to at least support violent Islamism in theory if they cannot participate in acts of violence that are regarded as Jihad (Hemmingsen 2014, 8). Separately, mores are regarded as principles that define proper moral conduct of individuals within the society (Macionis and Plummer 2012, 146). Within the context of Jihadism, individuals are supposed to observe many moral and religious standards of morality. For example, Hemmingsen (2014, 8) notes that the counterculture is defined specific dressing codes for male and female members. Moreover, the members are expected to observe various religious practice such as Hijra and Da’wa (Laigle 2016, 43). Therefore, these are examples of mores and norms that are used to guide the way members of the counterculture behave and interact with each other. Another important component of the concept of culture that can be used to describe the counterculture of terrorism is artifacts. Artifacts refers to all the material objects that individuals who share a specific culture use as part of their lives (Macionis and Plummer 2012, 147). Moreover, artifacts are important representations of the material culture of societies because they cover various physical aspects of the lives of individuals such as their dressing code, the devices that they use for various functions and even religious totems (Harrison and Dye 2007, 71). It is important to note that even in countercultures, members of any given counterculture are familiar and use specific objects or devices. In the case of the counterculture of terrorism, its material culture includes the dressing code of the members as well as the weapons that the individuals who belong to the culture use. Generally, members of the Jihadism counterculture use weapons that are synonymous with those used by traditional terrorist organisations such as Al Qaida and others (Olesen 2009, 14). Therefore, guns, hand grenades and other explosives are typical weapons that are used and which form the material aspects of the culture of the group. Values and beliefs are other important components of culture. In theory, values are defined as the standards that individuals in the society use to judge behaviour and actions as good or bad (Kendall 2016, 82). Thus, in any society, individuals share specific standards of determining the rightness of wrongness of actions. Beliefs, on the other hand are borne from values. Beliefs are sets of views about the world, life and social aspects that are shared by individuals within the society (Kendall 2016, 82). In the case of the counterculture of Jihadism, members hold various beliefs. However, the most important belief that is shared by members of the counterculture is that the world is currently being governed by non-believers and that it is the duty of believers to redeem the world and establish the rule of Allah (Khosrokhavar 2015, 5). Laigle (2016, 44) traces the values and belief systems of the counterculture of Jihadism to a radical form of Islam called Salafist Islam. Under this form of Islam, true Muslims are called upon to engage in a global Holy War to forcefully liberate the world from heretics and establish a caliphate or Muslims state to govern the entire world (Khosrokhavar 2009, 41). Moreover, members of the Jihadi counterculture believe that it is their duty to radicalise all Muslims and enlist them in the Holy War. Thus, the basic tenet of the argument is that acts of violence against heretics are justified because they serve as means to a divine end, which the establishment of a universal Islamic state that is government by Shariah law (Khosrokhavar 2009, 44). Language is another important component of culture that can be used to describe the counterculture of Jihadism. Language refers to a system of symbols that allows individuals to communicate verbally and non-verbally (Macionis and Plummer 2012, 148). Importantly, language is connected to the culture of the society in which it is used because it shapes the way the people in the society interact with each other and view the world (Olesen 2009, 15). According to Hemmingsen (2014, 8), members of the jihadi counterculture communicate using a language that includes specific Islam and Arabic terms. It is further noted that this form of language that the members of the subculture use identifies them because it is distinct and different from what is used in the general society (Macionis and Plummer 2012, 148). The use of this special form of language by members of the cultural subgroup serves various functions. Most notably, the use of the language helps to create a sense of modernity and align the radical aspects of Salafist Islam, which is the religious bedrock of Jihadism, to modern lifestyle (Khosrokhavar 2009, 44). Moreover, as it is the case with any social group, members of the counterterrorism culture use verbal and non-verbal forms of communication (Olesen 2009, 16). Non-verbal forms of communication include signs that represent various meanings related to the deity and other aspects of the cultural group. Apart from language, symbols form another set of important components of culture. Symbols are defined as objects or things that are recognised by individuals who belong to a society to represent commonly-held meanings (Harrison and Dye 2007, 73). In other words, for people in a society, any symbol is easily recognised as a representation of specific social, cultural or even religions concepts. The counterculture of terrorism uses various objects as symbols of other issues. For example, the entire Jihadi movement is symbolised by a special black flag (Laigle 45). The black flag with inscriptions in Arabic is widely recognised as a symbol of the Jihadi movement. Another important item that is used as a symbol in the counterculture of Jihadism is the Koran. Although the Koran is a religious text for Islam, it represents a special meaning to the members of the Jihadism counterculture (Just 2015, 11). All members of the counterculture consider the Koran as a symbol of Allah and the ultimate source of the law that can be used to guide all the activities of humanity. Another important symbol that is used in radical Islam in general as well as in Jihadism counterculture is what is referred to as ‘the West.’ The term refers to countries in Northern America and Europe which, according to counterterrorism ideology, are solely responsible for the plight of Muslims in the world (Khosrokhavar 2015, 5). Therefore, ‘The West,’ the Koran and the Jihadi flag are two of the most important symbols that are used in Jihadism counterculture to represent specific issues that are central to the ideology of the movement. The last important component of culture relates to the activities or practices that the members of a society carry out as part of their lives. The counterculture of Jihadism is characterised by the violent activities that its members use to achieve their politico-religious agenda (Hemmingsen 2014, 10). For example, members of the culture show a form of adherence to radical religious teachings as a way of aligning themselves to what they consider as the will of the divine (Laigle 2016, 17). Moreover, members tend to abandon their families as a necessity or because of their practices being considered too radical by ordinary members of the society (Olesen 2009, 17). Thus, members of this cultural group are identified by their use of violence against innocent civilians as a divine-sanctioned way of attaining specific purposes as well as the observance of various religious practices. Jihadism and the Status Quo The counterculture of Jihadism is different from the mainstream culture in many ways. for example, the ideology of the counterculture is different from what is generally held as acceptable forms of behaviour in the mainstream society. The essence of Jihadism, as it is exhibited in the terrorist activities of its members, is that the socio-political order of the world today is evil and should be abolished (Solomon 2013, 25). Thus, Jihadis believe that it is their sole religious duty to change the socio-political order that is in use in the world. To achieve this aim, members resort to indiscriminate violence against institutions and people (Hemmingsen 2014, 7). Therefore, as far as Jihadism believes in the need to change the socio-political system that is in place in the world and the perceived importance of using violence to achieve this objective, the counterculture is different from the mainstream culture which is based on law and order. Moreover, the counterculture is harmful to the society because of the way it uses religious teachings to radicalise young people and encourage them to use violence against innocent people to achieve political goals. Conclusion In conclusion, the term ‘culture’ refers to the overall way of life of people in a society. Culture, which includes material and non-material aspects, is made up of the following components: language, symbols, practices, beliefs and norms. The Jihadist counterculture is made up of these components. Members of the counterculture use specific verbal and non-verbal signs to communicate. Moreover, the entire counterculture is based on a strict interpretation of various Islamic teachings. The interpretation of religious teachings informs the norms and practices of the members of the group. Lastly, the counterculture of Jihadismchallenges the status quo by advocating for the use of violent acts of terrorism against the established political order in the world. References Harrison, Brigid and Dye, Thomas. 2007. Power and society: An introduction to the social sciences. Mason: Cengage. Hemmingsen, Ann-Sophie. 2014. ‘Viewing Jihadism as a counterculture: potential and limitations.’ Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, (2014): 2-16. https://counterideology2.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/Jihadism-as-counter-culture.pdf Just, Janis. 2015. Jihad 2.0: The impact of social media on the Salafist scene and the nature of terrorism. New York: Anchor Academic Publishing. Kendall, Diana. 2016. Sociology in our times. Mason: Cengage Learning. Khosrokhavar, Farhad. 2009. ‘Jihadism in Europe and the Middle East.’ Islamism as a Social Movement, (2009): 37-44. http://www.ps.au.dk/fileadmin/site_files/filer_statskundskab/subsites/cir/pdf-filer/H%C3%A6fte2final.pdf Khosrokhavar, Farhad. 2015. Inside Jihadism: Understanding jihadi movement worldwide. London: Routledge. Laigle, Germain. 2016. ‘Contemporary European Jihadism: Friendship and counterculture.’ Master thesis, Central European University, Department of International Relations. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=4&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjBvqvr25DVAhWjCMAKHTiACDsQFgg6MAM&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etd.ceu.hu%2F2016%2Flaigle_germain.pdf&usg=AFQjCNH9Kmo4t77_hciy7y-sooyoivKkgg Macionis, John, J and Plummer, Kenneth. 2012. Sociology: A global introduction. Essex: Pearson. Olesen, Thomas and. 2009. ‘Social movement theory and radical Islamic activism.’ Islamism as social movement.’ 7-23. http://www.ps.au.dk/fileadmin/site_files/filer_statskundskab/subsites/cir/pdf-filer/H%C3%A6fte2final.pdf Solomon, Hussein. Jihad: A South African perspective. Pretoria: African Sun Media. Read More

In this case, the counterculture of Jihadism has various prospective as well as prescriptive expectations that are shared by the members of the counterculture and which are used to regulate the behaviour of the members. For example, all the members of the counterculture are expected to at least support violent Islamism in theory if they cannot participate in acts of violence that are regarded as Jihad (Hemmingsen 2014, 8). Separately, mores are regarded as principles that define proper moral conduct of individuals within the society (Macionis and Plummer 2012, 146).

Within the context of Jihadism, individuals are supposed to observe many moral and religious standards of morality. For example, Hemmingsen (2014, 8) notes that the counterculture is defined specific dressing codes for male and female members. Moreover, the members are expected to observe various religious practice such as Hijra and Da’wa (Laigle 2016, 43). Therefore, these are examples of mores and norms that are used to guide the way members of the counterculture behave and interact with each other.

Another important component of the concept of culture that can be used to describe the counterculture of terrorism is artifacts. Artifacts refers to all the material objects that individuals who share a specific culture use as part of their lives (Macionis and Plummer 2012, 147). Moreover, artifacts are important representations of the material culture of societies because they cover various physical aspects of the lives of individuals such as their dressing code, the devices that they use for various functions and even religious totems (Harrison and Dye 2007, 71).

It is important to note that even in countercultures, members of any given counterculture are familiar and use specific objects or devices. In the case of the counterculture of terrorism, its material culture includes the dressing code of the members as well as the weapons that the individuals who belong to the culture use. Generally, members of the Jihadism counterculture use weapons that are synonymous with those used by traditional terrorist organisations such as Al Qaida and others (Olesen 2009, 14).

Therefore, guns, hand grenades and other explosives are typical weapons that are used and which form the material aspects of the culture of the group. Values and beliefs are other important components of culture. In theory, values are defined as the standards that individuals in the society use to judge behaviour and actions as good or bad (Kendall 2016, 82). Thus, in any society, individuals share specific standards of determining the rightness of wrongness of actions. Beliefs, on the other hand are borne from values.

Beliefs are sets of views about the world, life and social aspects that are shared by individuals within the society (Kendall 2016, 82). In the case of the counterculture of Jihadism, members hold various beliefs. However, the most important belief that is shared by members of the counterculture is that the world is currently being governed by non-believers and that it is the duty of believers to redeem the world and establish the rule of Allah (Khosrokhavar 2015, 5). Laigle (2016, 44) traces the values and belief systems of the counterculture of Jihadism to a radical form of Islam called Salafist Islam.

Under this form of Islam, true Muslims are called upon to engage in a global Holy War to forcefully liberate the world from heretics and establish a caliphate or Muslims state to govern the entire world (Khosrokhavar 2009, 41). Moreover, members of the Jihadi counterculture believe that it is their duty to radicalise all Muslims and enlist them in the Holy War. Thus, the basic tenet of the argument is that acts of violence against heretics are justified because they serve as means to a divine end, which the establishment of a universal Islamic state that is government by Shariah law (Khosrokhavar 2009, 44).

Language is another important component of culture that can be used to describe the counterculture of Jihadism.

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