Translation of Culture and Religion - Research Paper Example

Translation of Culture and Religion Module Module ID: SECTION I Language, Religion and Culture: Language serves as one of the greatest modes and sources of communication, which gives meaning to each and every person, place, article, thought, expression and action. It is “any means of conveying or communicating ideas; specifically, human speech; the expression of ideas by the voice; sounds, expressive of thought, articulated by the organs of the throat and mouth.” (Brainy quote) Although body expressions and gestures are also supportive in respect of conveying one’s message to others, yet they not only take plenty of time while delivering the message, but also are unable to give comprehensive meanings to the thoughts and imagination. Consequently, communication is directly dependent of words, both verbal and written, so that the other people could act, react and behave in the light of the message delivered to them by the fellow humans in a comprehensible manner. “Language is”, Chomsky submits, “a natural object, a component of the human mind, physically represented in the brain and part of the biological endowment of the species.” (Belletti & Rizzi, 2002, p.1) Thousands of languages are written and spoken in divergent areas, regions and societies of the world, which not only play decisive role in the interaction process between millions of the individuals, but also are reflective of social norms, cultural traits, religious beliefs, mores, taboos, traditions, conventions and statutes of prevailing law within a social establishment. Hence, the entire social, cultural and religious fabrics can be explained and exposed with the help of one single component i.e. language. “While language and communication systems are part of culture, and language has often been used as a proxy for culture, the overlap between language and culture is only partial.” (Lee, 2003, p. 5) Consequently, language serves as a formidable bridge between humans and their spiritual thoughtfulness on the one hand, and between the individuals and their collective cultural life on the other. Although language is the most wide-ranging medium of communication, yet it also experiences its limitations due to the very reality that one single language is spoken and understood in one particular area or part or the world could not help the entire world to understand their viewpoints and opinions. Consequently, one language, popular in one area, could be alien and unknown for the people living in other zones and regions of the globe. Hence, the language would undergo enormous and awkward drawbacks and limitations, due to the very fact that even the popular language could be incomprehensible and rubbish for the foreign lands, and people would take it as the complex phenomenon in nature and scope. Thus, there appeared the concept of translating one language into others, in order to make successful communications with other societies and cultures, as people have to enter into interaction with other cultures for trade, commerce, education, health, recreation and other social, political, economic and other purposes; spread, preaching and learning of religious teachings is also one of the most dynamic purposes in this regards. SECTION II Religion and Translation 2.1 Overview of Religion and Translation: Religion and language maintain strong relationship with one another; it is partly because of the very fact that both the phenomena have added their share in the spread and popularity of each and other. Had there no words altogether, the preachers could not have anything to present and preach their belief to the others. Similarly, by looking into the history of the religions, it becomes evident that religious belief systems particularly accelerated the pace of spreading languages from one society to the other through the spiritual leaders, religious mentors, philosophers and thinkers, which not only brought the people belonging to divergent cultures and societies closer to each other, but also communicated the sacred message of the Lord in a refined and sonorous manner. It was particularly the case with the Abrahamic faiths, including Judaism, Christianity and Islam, where all the three belief systems intended to spread the universal message of God to the people of God living in the pole-apart regions of the globe, as well as belonging to diversified ethnic, racial, cultural and political groups. For instance, the Old Testament (Torah) had been revealed to Moses from Almighty God in Hebrew language, which was studied by the Hebrew people, called the House of Jacob, with great religious fervour and for their moral and spiritual uplift. “In Jewish tradition, the first five books of the Old Testament, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, are called The Torah. While the word torah is often translated into English as “law” (based on the Septuagint’s use of nomos, law, to translate torah), the term actually means instruction.” (Bratcher, 2007) Thus, the Hebrew language got popularity because of Judaism, and Judaism also made its sure headway to penetrate into various societies because of the prevailing translation phenomenon in society, which turned out to be helpful in converting the Scripture and traditions in other languages; the same is also applied to the New Testament and the Qur’an. 2.2 Need for Translating the Scriptures: Initially, the Hebrew community used to live in Canaan as twelve tribes of the same ancestry. However, with the passage of time, they travelled outside and scattered in Egypt, Israel, Roman Empire and other parts of the world, and penetrated in the alien societies. They not only learned the indigenous languages in the country they had settled as immigrants, but also taught the emigrants the holy message of God. The growth of civilization urged the Hebrew people to strive to understand the meanings behind the verses of the Holy Scripture. As a result, the thinkers laid stress upon translating it to other national and regional languages, so that the people could not only comprehend with its text and message, but could also be in a position to defend their faith while arguing with others regarding religious thoughtfulness and truthfulness of Judaism. Another imperative reason behind making of Torah’s translation was this that the education was compulsory among the Jews since ever, even far before the arrival of Moses. The Jews used to study the scripture, which had been revealed to the first father i.e. Abraham. The spiritually blessed Jewish nation was well-acquainted with the spiritual and worldly knowledge, wisdom and foresight. Consequently, they made translation of their Scriptures wherever they moved. Hence, the translations of the Old Testament were available in the ancient Persian and Roman languages some five centuries before Christ. There is an interesting legend telling how the Greek translation of the Old Testament came to be called Septuagint. “About 250 B.C., word of a famous and beautifully written book possessed by the Jews had reached the ear of the Ptolemaic King Philadelphus. He suggested that seventy Jewish scholars translate the work into Greek.” (Dimont, 2003, p.112) Thus, the Jews in later centuries had successfully made the translation of the Old Testament in almost all major languages of their times, which included Greek, Roman, Persian, Aramaic, Semitic and Egyptian. The Christianity is the second among the three Abrahamic faiths, the followers of which paid due heed to communicate and preach the New Testament (i.e. the Bible) to the people belonging to the different ethno-racial groups and communities of the world at large. Hence, the earliest Christians wholeheartedly preached their faith, and welcomed the outsiders to seek eternal shelter in this spiritual belief containing universality in it in every sense of the world. It is therefore the Christians brought the holy message from the city to Nazareth to the vast Roman Empire, Africa, and Asia. The translation of the Bible was also the part of the same campaign launched by the Christians to introduce the entire world with the personality, life, sayings and teachings of Jesus. Since the Christians associate themselves with the Abrahamic teachings and declare them as the spiritual heirs of the same school of thought, they not only managed to translate the New Testament for the people with different languages and cultures, but also they got the Old Testament translated in other languages for the benefit and best interests of the entire Christian world in general. “The evangelistic thrust of the early church gave impetus for many translations to impart the gospel to peoples in diverse language areas of the Roman Empire. Before A.D. 400 the Bible had been made available in Latin, Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, Armenian, and Georgian. The succeeding centuries brought still other translations.” (Guthrie, 2010, p.1) Initially, the Bible was translated into Aramaic, Greek, Roman and Egyptian languages; however, with the passage of time, it was converted into all the major languages existing in the world. King James Version (KJV) of translation into English is regarded as one of the most popular translations of the Bible. Islam is the third and the final one among the Abrahamic faiths, which shares mythology, history, belief system, teachings, personalities and incidents with the Torah and Bible. The revelation of the sacred Islamic Scripture i.e. the Qur’an is estimated to commence by 610 A.D., which took nearly 22 years in the completion of the revelation in 632 A.D. The Scripture was certainly revealed to the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in Arabic language, the native language of the Arabs, and offers complete and comprehensive guideline to humans for their individual, collective, religious, political, social and economic life. Like the Old and New Testaments, translation of the Qur’an was also a great challenge for the followers of Islamic set of belief. It was partly due to very reality that the Prophet of Islam (peace be upon him) had reiterated the significance of teaching and learning the knowledge and wisdom upon his followers. The sayings of the Holy Prophet were also in Arabic, which were complied and preserved under various titles. Since the indigenous Arab population could easily study these literary pieces of literature, it was impossible for the non-Arabs to understand these teachings without learning the Arabic language. Thus, the Muslims were determined to translate the Scripture in order to comprehend with the commandments it decrees. Initially, the Scripture was translated in the languages existing in the suburbs of the Arabia; somehow, with the passage of time, it was translated into Persian, Roman, African and Turkish languages; somehow, now the translation of the Scripture is available in all important languages including English, French, German, Italian, Urdu, Chinese and others. 2.3 Method of Translating the Scriptures: Translation of one language into the other is hard nut to crack, which becomes more difficult and technical task in case of making the translation of Holy Scriptures. It requires profound knowledge, in-depth analytical insight and great information of reference to the context of the Scripture under translation, along with unflinching and unabated command over both the languages i.e. the language of the Scripture and the language in which they are going to be translated. The translator must have command over the grammar, cultural context, syntax, vowels, prepositions, phrases and other requirements. Slight mistake while making translation may put the very meaning and message of the Holy Scripture into grave jeopardy. For instance, while making translation of the Book of Genesis, the translator must have knowledge about the Abrahamic mythology, including the concept of Oneness of God the Creator, the angels, heaven and hell, creation of Adam, as well as the culture, civilisation and society to which the holy personalities belonged to. If a translator makes translation of the incident leading to the Great Flood and afterwards, he must have knowledge of the social, cultural and religious condition of the people of Noah. There are several words in the Qur’an, which cannot be translated altogether. For instance, in the second chapter of the Scripture, the words alif, laam, meem are not translated, and are kept in the same state while making translation. Moreover, all the Abrahamic Scriptures, including the Torah, Bible and Qur’an address the Jews as the House of Jacob, which simply refers to the progeny of Jacob. Moreover, several other technicalities come on the way during the process of making translation of the Scriptures. For instance, almost all the titles of the chapters of these three Scriptures have been named after the incident discussed in the chapter, and hence do not state the characteristics of the title. For instance, the chapter Exodus or migration does not state the benefits or qualities of migrating from one place to the other; rather, it elaborates the migration of the Israelites from Egypt to Canaan. Similarly, third chapter of the Holy Qur’an has been titled as the House of Imran, in which the incidents of the births of Mary, John and Jesus have been described, though most part of the chapter serves as address to social, cultural and religious patterns of life to be adopted by the true followers. In addition, the Scriptures could not be translated word by word; thus, idiomatic translation should be made to clarify its meanings and convey its message. SECTION III 3.1 Translation of Culture: Translation of culture simply refers to converting the prominent elements and characteristics attributed to one specific culture; these include art, literature, religion, conventions, norms, technology, education, political structure, recreational activities and social values etc. It is therefore translation of a culture is viewed to a vehemently technical and challenging phenomenon in its real sense. It is partly due to the very fact that “on the one hand the culture of translation might be presented as the sum of various kinds of translated texts (repertoire of culture), on the other hand it might be described as the hierarchy of the various types of translations themselves.” (Torop, 2002, p.1) Consequently, translation of culture encompasses the language, literature and the thoughts behind any creative activity. For instance, while making the translation of a piece of literature, the translator would have to convert the basic imagination and motif behind creating the same, as well as he would describe the situation under which it has been produced in black and white. 3.2 Difficulties in Translating the Culture: Similarly, the situation and logic behind the music, dance, drama, sculptor, poetry, drinks, dinners, folklore, mores and other cultural features also require command over history of individual, collective, expressive and progressive activities had been in vogue in some specific culture for centuries. Hence, even a verbose and pompous translation, made after hard efforts, would turn out to be futile provided it is not in a position to narrate the features with reference to the context. For instance, translation of the US culture urges the translator to depict the popular languages, folklore, music, dresses and much more with reference to the development they underwent with the passage of time; i.e. while drawing out the US language, the translator will have to throw light upon the very logic and idea of simplifying the language by removing extra alphabets from several words of conventional English language; why and how the Americans read, write and speak the words labour, photo, civilisation, devour and thousands of others, by removing of changing the alphabets. For this, a proficient, skilled and scholarly translator may cite the pompous English spellings applied by the classical writers and poets including Chaucer, Spenser, Milton and Pope, where the sun was spelled as sunne, soul was stated as soule, and additional alphabets were applied in several other words including kingdom, emperor and good etc. Hence, understanding of divergent languages and cultures, with their historical prospects, turns out to be supportive in making a refined and authentic translation of culture. Additionally, transformation of cultural contexts from one language to the other also demands the acquaintance of the traits specific to different groups and communities. It is because of the very reality that a culture could be divided into different religious beliefs, sects, communities and groups, where one personality or activity could be admirable for one community, while the same may turn out to be an object of abhorrence and profane one for others. Taking the example of Indian culture and civilisation, the invaders including Sultan Mehmood Ghaznavi, Muhammad Ghori and Qutbuddin Aibak etc are revered as heroes by an overwhelming majority of the Indian Muslims, while the same are declared to be villains by the Indian Hindus. Consequently, all aspects and critical appreciation is required while transforming the culture into some other one. “Translation, involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group, entails a process of cultural de-coding, re-coding and en-coding. As cultures are increasingly brought into greater contact with one another, multicultural considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree.” (Karamanian, 2011) Furthermore, translation of folklores and moral stories is also a hard nut to crack for the translators. The reason behind this is that some characters, animals and birds are of different value for one culture; as owl serves as a sign of good luck and fortune in the western societies, and the people take it as the messenger of joy for the future days to come; however, the same owl is anonymously declared as an ill omen in eastern cultures, the presence of which may invite death and destruction in its wake. It is due to the fact that owl’ blood and body organs are also used for practicing black magic upon the enemies and rivals in order to ruin their life. Thus, such minute things are to be kept in view during translating the cultural aspects of a social fabrication. Moreover, signs and symbols as well as patterns of behaviour also vary from one culture to the other. As presenting a peeled banana is taken as a gesture of courtesy in the western society; however, the same is taken as a condemnable gesture of offering sexual intercourse in the eastern part of Europe. Similarly, yellow roses are symbolised to be the situation of long waiting in one culture, while the same is regarded as the sign of disliking and hatred in the other. It is therefore the scholars reiterate a thorough study of the literature of the culture, which is to be translated into some other language. 3.3 Significance of Translating the Culture: Being an essential part of every culture, ethics and values are also transformed from one language to the other. The main objective behind making such hard efforts is for introducing the aspects, traits, technology and literature of one country or society to others for business purposes and financial gains. Somehow, such aspects also look for vast knowledge and wisdom. Another important aspect of translating the culture is the transformation of technical jargon and the words and phrases applied for the industrial and technological equipments. For instance, the articles like refrigerator, television, computer and others cannot be translated to any other language; the same is applied to drinks, dinners, dances and dresses, as they convey the same meanings in their real names. Furthermore, translation of culture also looks for converting the symbols, signs, gestures and expressions too in the second language in order to present the exact picture of the cultural features to the readers, viewers and spectators alike. Such translation needs change in the genre, syntax and phrasal expression to prove it as the exact and accurate picture of the original text. “The translation within a system of signs is related to paraphrasing, changing of genres and discourses. As a second type of translation R. Jakobson mentioned inter-lingual translation that means interpretation of verbal signs with the verbal signs of another language (sign system) and is thus translation in the ordinary sense.” (Torop, 2002, p.595) In other words, comprehensive translation of a culture is very challenging particularly in a multicultural society, where several communities observe divergent cultural traits and values in its fold, where sometimes an ordinary translation certainly appears to communicate the message of cultural values of a society, yet it is almost unable to present a vivid, pageant and complete picture full of colourful experiences and variety of norms, morality, conventions and taboos. 3.4 Cultural Transposition: Cultural transposition is an imperative phenomenon in respect of language converting and translation of one culture into the other. Articulated by Dickens, Hervey & Higgins (1992), the theory discusses five textual levels, which include genre, cultural, semantic, formal and varietal. (Sharkas, 2009, p.1) In the list, genre represents the literary and artistic things, which are to be translated from the source text into the target text. It sometimes happens that some words cannot be translated exactly into the target text. For example, names of books written on a personality or folklore are not converted into the target text. Cultural level includes traditional dance etc, which are also very hard to get converted into the second language. Third level, mentioned by the theorists i.e. semantic stands for the translation of idioms, phrases and maxims in vogue in the source text, which appear to be ridiculous provided converted into the target text word by word. Such idiomatic phrases are used in public places and at domestic scale, but are seldom applied in formal and ceremonial gatherings. Similarly, formal translation consists of names of brands, logos, equipments and tools etc, which are also almost impossible to get converted into target text; as computer, mobile, TV, internet and machinery are used in the same titles in all areas of the globe. Formal level of transposition looks for converting phonics, sounds, graphic presentation and scientific formulae into the target text. Such level also requires extreme care and dedication to translate in its true sense. “In their attempt to design a method of translation that can offer a systematic approach to the task of translation, Hervey and Higgins (1992: 22-24) reject the principle of equivalent effect and criticize it as misleading and unhelpful for several reasons.” (Sharkas, 2009, p.4) The final level i.e. varietal one is the transposition, where the wording and sentence usage varies from one class to the other, as well as within religious, communal and cultural pretext. For instance, slang is used by the downtrodden people, while informal words are spoken by the middle class. Similarly, some cultural groups also speak and write the distinguished words, which are not popular in the mainstream culture. Thus, cultural transposition encompasses all aspects of cultural translation, without which no translation process could be regarded as complete and comprehensive one. Conclusion: To conclude, it becomes evident that translation is a very imperative socio-cultural and religious phenomenon, which wide opens new horizons of wisdom, knowledge and thoughtfulness to the people alien to some particular language and culture. The translation of religious books, manuscripts and interpretations help the followers belonging to foreign land in understanding the basics of their faith on the one hand, and offers the scholars the opportunities of analysing various aspects of faith to teach and preach the word of God to the laymen and general public at large. Similarly, translation of classics like the works of ancient, Medieval and other eras provide the readers with the philosophical, literary and scientific approaches presented, created and adopted by the intellectual giants of all times through their words. Had there been no concept of translation, the people could have not recognised the Holy Scriptures, outstanding intellect of the great philosophers, remarkable plays, poems, tragedies and comedies of the master mind poets, writers and playwrights, wonderful scientific theoretical frameworks and discoveries, noble sayings of the seer and wise and the variety and colourfulness of thousands of cultures existing in the world. “Translation serves as a means of communication, a transmitter of culture, a technique.” (Newmark, 2005, p. 7) Translation has also helped out in popularising the brands, equipments, commodities and technology in the foreign lands and yonder regions of the globe. Hence, it is translation that has brought the religions, cultures, civilisations and societies closer to one another, and has turned them capable of giving vent to their ideas, imaginations and philosophies at large. Bibliography 1. Belletti, Andriana & Rizzi, Luigi 2002 On Nature and Language by Chomsky, Noam Cambridge University Press pp 1-26 2. Gallagher-Brett, Angela. 2006 Seven Hundred Reasons For Studying Languages http://www.llas.ac.uk/resourcedownloads/6063/700_reasons.pdf 3. Dimont, Max I. 2003 Jews, God and History Penguin Books Limited pp 97-119 4. Guthrie, George H. 2010 A History of Bible Translations Retrieved from http://www.bhpublishinggroup.com/readthebible/downloads/cdrom/Week_01/Translations_History.pdf 5. Lee, Sharon M. 2003 A Review of Language and Other Communication Barriers in Health Care U.S. Department of Health And Human Services Cosmos Corporation pp 1-28 http://www.hablamosjuntos.org/resources/pdf/SMLeeCommunication_and_Health.pdf 6. Newmark, P. 2005 Textbook on translation. Pearlson Education Limited: Harlow p.7 Quoted in http://www.bokorlang.com/journal/59pm.htm 7. Sharkas, Hala 2009 Translation Quality Assessment of Popular Science Articles Corpus Study of the Scientific American and Its Arabic Version Trans-kom 2 [1] (2009): 42-62 Seite 42 Retrieved from http://www.trans-kom.eu/bd02nr01/trans-kom_02_01_03_Sharkas_Translation_Quality_Assessment.20090721.pdf 8. Torop, Peeter. 2002 Translation as Translating as Culture Sign Systems Studies 30.2 http://www.ut.ee/SOSE/sss/pdf/torop302.pdf 9. Karamanian, Alejandra Patricia. 2011 Translation and Culture Retrieved from http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/translation/articles/translation-and-culture.html 10. Brainy Quote. 2011 Definition of Language Retrieved from http://www.brainyquote.com/words/la/language183528.html 11. http://www.transpositions.co.uk/2011/03/cultural-transpositions-a-review-of-culture-inculturation-and-theologians/ Read More