Overview of the Broader Project of Neurotheology including the Etymology of the term - Essay Example

Neurotheology in Review (0pening Chapter) Brief History of Science and Religion Among the ancient priest of the Aztecs, Egyptians, as well as Babylon, remarkable scientific knowledge that are existing are traced by the researchers. The modern scientific method which involved the use of theories as well as experimentation was traced from the Greeks and the Hellenistic world. In addition to that, the first diagrams of the brain are credited by the researchers to ancient Egypt. Medieval science, from 1250 to 1650 was carried with a framework of Aristotle which focused on observation through the senses. Science was linear, cause and effect and the purpose as well as the function of things exist for desired ends, an example of which is an acorn for a tree, the world and what is in it for humanity. This was a hierarchy of the world with God at the top and man at the center. Moreover, the prevailing perspective of the universe was the sun and the planet revolved around the earth. Through mathematical models of planets and earth, Copernicus challenged this metaphysics and his research de-centered the earth as well as humanity, directly challenging the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church and the philosophy of Aristotle which held firmly the other position. The view of mechanistic universe was slowly taking preeminence in science and challenging Aquinas great theological synthesis of Catholic theology as well as the earlier science, with the invention of the telescope and Galileo’s published research in mass, space and time. Philosophical exposition of distinction between primary and secondary qualities which leads to a radical separation or dualism between main (non-material) and matter (material) is given by Rene Descartes (1596-1650). With his invention of calculus, the use of observation and theory to experiment in mechanics as well as optics, Isaac Newton has contributed to the rise of Western Science. The church as the source of cultural authority, abut the universe, the world and eventually human behavior are displaced by science. This history of science and religion is an excerpt of an article from the Connecticut Presentation. History of Neurotheology Earliest Works Contributing to its Development like Huxley’s book, James Ashbrook’s 1984 Zygon article and Laurence McKinney’s book Neurology: Virtual Religion. Discuss the book and his contributions to Neurotheology. The first to use the term neutheology in a philosophical or pseudo scientific context is Aldous Huxley. He mentioned neurotheology in his Utopian novel island which was published in 1962, alongside with such disciplines as pharmacology, sociology, physiology, autology, metachemistry and mycomysticism (Huxley, A., 1962). Scientist and religionist James Ashbrook was recognized as the first one who used the term Neurotheology in a scientific context (Ashbrook, 1984). The first book which carried the term in its title was written by Maverick Laurence O. McKinney (McKinney, 1994) and the second was edited by Rhawn Joseph (Joseph, 2002). The book of Joseph is a compilation of essays, both contemporary and historical exploring mystical/spiritual practices and consciousness using the tools of neuroscience and psychology, while McKinney’s book reads more like a novel speculating the roles of belief and science to transform humanity (Alston, 2006b). The book McKinney which is entitled “Neorotheology – Virtual Religion in the 21st Century” was published in 1994. It was published by the American Institute of Mindfulness. In this book McKinney discusses paradigms for consciousness, concepts of time, reality, religion as well as spiritual experience in his efforts to explore the efficacy of Neurotheology as a religion centered in the perceptual awareness of the mind (excerpt of an article from the Connecticut Presentation). This book was promoted in Zygon, a theological journal. Recently the Newsweek has cited a 1998 book which was published by MIT Press, called Zen and the Brain. And since then, by including studies using data from mediating Buddhist monks as well as praying Franciscan nuns, scholarly journals have devoted issues with regards to religions and the mind (Elliot, 2007). Description/Overview of the Broader Project of Neurotheology including the Etymology of the term Neurotheology In understanding the broader project of neurotheology, the key issue is the nature of beliefs – the central mental constructs of human being which shape the core of human personality and identity. Their variance is the most distinct characteristic of beliefs which includes cultural and social, religious and scientific, political and economic, ethical and historical and other types of beliefs. The application of neuroscience in studying religious as well as spiritual beliefs is the focus of this paper. The only one instance of application of neurotheology is the attempt to relate neuroscience and religion wherein the broader scope of neurotheology is exemplified as a budding discipline which aims to make good on the current claim of science in various fields. Theology, as well as science represents two strikingly different and conflicting fields of knowledge, however an attempt to unite them may not be as hopeless as you may think. The major issue is to correctly understand the meaning and purpose of this attempt. According to Alston (2006a), neurotheology should be perceived as a narrow isolated discipline which attempt to establish the missing link between the human being and God. This approach to studying brain, mind and beliefs can also be employed by other sciences, despite the focus of the contemporary neurological research on the study of brain and religious/spiritual experiences such as meditation and prayer. According to Newberg (2006), neurotheology is an emerging discipline which seeks to integrate two different perspectives of science and theology, into one broad field of knowledge in order to provide an appropriate framework as well as methodological basis to join these varying perspectives together. Neurotheology’s development as an independent branch of knowledge is a daring attempt to establish multidisciplinary perspective which may potentially facilitate further studies of each separate discipline that are included in it. This attempt has a core idea to find out the way in which science as well as its tools can contribute to better understanding of theology, mind, and spirituality and vise versa. Neurotheology methodology To help understand each discipline and unpack relationship between various disciplines invited to the project, the neurotheological methodology consists of four approaches. An organized heuristic through which one can intimate the influences of their relationships to human thought, feeling, behavior, as well as experiences were provided by the four-fold methodology. These includes: 1) The first method which is a consideration of worldviews and paradigms that are presented within the context of each discipline. How the discipline identifies, defines, interprets and shapes its view of things and tools and approaches it to understand a given situation are determined by this method; 2) The second method is related to the ways each discipline structures its relationships within the field. For instance, does the discipline approach other knowledge projects in conflict, as independent, dialogic or integrative, or does it participate in other relational constructs such as circular, complex, dualistic, hierarchical, linear monistic quantum or something else; 3) The third method comprises ritual experience in which each discipline are engaged in various activities, practices, processes, as well as procedures to sustain presence and support its growth; and 4) The fourth method focuses upon the question of reality and each discipline proposes different ways to understand as well as interpret reality whether of the physical, mental or spiritual kind or of the personal, social, internal, or external type. In addition to that, Neurutheology attempt to encompass diverse understandings of reality proposed by all disciplines (Alston B.C., 2006a). In the 1950s and 1960s, to study brain wave patterns correlated with spiritual states, early studies attempted to use “EEGs.” Dr. Michael Persinger stimulated the temporal lobes of human subjects with a weak magnetic field, during the 1980s, wherein his subjects claimed to have a sensation of an ethereal presence in the room. At that time, his work gained publicity, although it was unresolved as to the mechanism that may have elicited this response. During experiences that subjects associate with spiritual feeling or images, some current studies use neuroimaging to localize brain regions active, or differentially active. A psychologist at Wheaton College, Massachusetts named David Wulf, suggested that current brain imaging studies, along with the consistency of spiritual experiences across cultures as well as religions, suggest a common core that is likely a reflection of structures and processes in the human brain, echoing primary thesis of McKinney that feelings associated with religious experience are normal aspects of brain function under extreme circumstances rather than communication from God (Elliot, 2007). Beliefs Beliefs as defined by Alston, (2006c) are implicit as well as explicit frameworks which help us make sense out of our experiences and serve as the foundation that we build our expectations. Beliefs as suggested by David J. Schneider are among the most primitive and central of mental constructs. They are the key components of our personalities as well as senses of identity and our expressions of beliefs often define us to others. A lot of our reactions to others are based on our beliefs and our perception of theirs. In addition to that, racism, prejudice, religious and national conflicts cannot be understood without considering disagreement in basic belief. Because we believe the group will support our beliefs, we join in many groups. Many of our beliefs changes by our participation in groups. In our effort to change our beliefs about self and the things we hold dear, we seek psychotherapy. Political as well as religious beliefs are central to many people. Moreover, our behaviors, mundane and consequential, are affected by what we believe. “There are thee types of beliefs that have been distinguished, which includes: 1) descriptive or existential beliefs, are those capable of being true or false; 2) evaluative beliefs, wherein the object of belief is judge to be good or bad; and 3) prescriptive or proscriptive beliefs, wherein some means or end of action is judged to be desirable or undesirable. A value is a belief of the third kind, - the prescriptive or proscriptive belief” (Kolko-Rivera, M.E., 2004; Rokeach, M., 1973). According to Alston (2006b), Neurotheology is the science of beliefs wherein how brain and mind experience, interpret, generate as well as meditate belief phenomena are studied. Diverse understandings of reality, is engaged in neurotheology, which includes physical, mental and spiritual. Major areas of human activity such as Mystical, Religious, Spiritual, and Theological Traditions and Experiences, Specific Programs and Psychological Theories, Philosophical Traditions, Economic Policies, Socio-Political Influences, Cultural Manifestations, Technological developments as well as Ethical Implications are captured by the discipline. Moreover it affords critical, creative study of the brain, mind, belief and belief systems involved in thought, feeling behavior and experience. Some are saying that neurotheology proves that God created the brain and others believed that “the brain created the God.” Some say, at the root of the debate is the threat that faith could be reduced to nothing more than chemical reactions in the brain (Elliot, H., 2007). In popular media, according to Elliot (2007), “coupling with science and belief has become increasingly prominent. Time, as well as Newsweek magazines has both recently run long stories exploring the newly recognized discipline and the current studies at Wheaton College, Columbia University as well as University of Pennsylvania are using neuroimaging to locate brain regions activated during emotional or spiritual events.” For out of the body or enlightenment experiences, the quest is to find a neurological basis which includes trances, time perception, oneness with the universe as well as altered states of consciousness. However, in explaining the more mundane habits of religious life such as prayer, beliefs, mediation as well as senses of the presence of the supernatural, neurotheology can also help. “What shape the core stem of the mind are beliefs and belief systems. Beliefs represent ontological complexes, demanding complex stories similarly, to the relationship between the brain as well as the mind,” (Van Gelder, TJ., 1998). Within any existing discipline as well as the influence of beliefs on thoughts, feelings, and experience, the relationship between the physical phenomena which includes behavior, and beliefs can hardly be explained (Alston, 2006c). Summary on each of the following areas and their connections to brain, mind, and belief perspectives from each of these main perspectives: Anthropology, Biology, Chemistry (Neurochemistry), Cognitive Science, Economics (neuroeconomics), Genetics, Linguistic, Mysticism, Neuropsychology, Neuroscience, Philosophy (western like the mind/body polemic, philosophy of mind, and Plato/Aristotle, etc. but also perspectives eastern like Confucianism, as well as philosophical perspectives African and Indian), Psychology, and Theology. Due to lack of proper and techniques that are applicable to study mind as well as non material phenomena, and due to specific philosophic paradigms underlying the scientific approach, traditionally, science does not consider the human mind, spirituality, beliefs as well as ideas. In the study of non-physical phenomena, contemporary science lacks tools and methodologies to apply. For instance, no existing scientific discipline is capable of explaining the influence of beliefs on our thoughts, feelings, and experience. With neurotheology taking the lead in the scientific study of brain, mind, and belief phenomena, series of disciplines has emerged in order to fill this vacuum. A lot of researchers focused on the application of neuroscience to study religious and spiritual beliefs. To study beliefs other than religions and spiritual, other sciences for instance, cognitive science, biology genetics, chemistry and psychology have applied their tools. Like for example, Neurochemistry, neurophilosophy, neuroeconomics as well as neuropolitics, applied the neuroscientific tools and findings to improve their understanding of the problems and issues within the existing discipline. According to Lipton (2005), “the recent and interesting perspective on the brain, mind, as well as beliefs established the connection between mind and matter through epigenetics and he maintains that neither genes per se nor DNA determine who we are: it is the cell and its membrane that regulates its contact with its environment. Based on his postulates, humans have direct influence over environment through nutrition, the energy of our thoughts and convictions of our beliefs. To relate brain, mind, and belief, Gene-based theories of spirituality represent another approach. Hence, Dean Hammer states that faith is hardwired into our genes, and he supposed that spirituality phenomena are determined by combination of several different genes and specific environmental influences that play equally important role (Hammer, D., 2004). Based on some recent neuroscientific findings, it suggest that from the beginning of conscious lives, human brain searches for visual signs that conform to understanding of reality present at inception. Studies of modern imaging revealed physiological responses of the brain to stimuli that are perceived through the five senses and other studies pinpoint brain areas stimulation which produces the same effects are otherwise achieved though prayers and meditation (D’Aquili and Newberg, 1999). By relating the paradigms of theology and science, Neurotheology advances as a new discipline with the aim to make good on recent findings of neuroscience. New tools of neuroscience are employed by Charles Laughlin, as well as other researchers to expose neurophysiological determinants of ritual behavior, reveal specific psychological characteristics of human beings, and define dominance of the right or left brain hemisphere in relation to various patterns of belief as well as images of the divine (Fontana, D., 2003). The articles of Rhawn Joseph covered topics of religious beliefs and spirituality and methodological peculiarities of scientific perspectives which include neuroscience and psychology (Joseph, R. 2002). Increasing interest toward the ‘God-spot’ phenomena was ignited during the last decade of 20th century, by a series of publications attempting to reveal the mystical relationship between the human brain and spirituality with the help of brain imaging data that was collected from Tibetan Buddhists in the state of meditation and praying Franciscan monks (Begley, A. and Underwood, A., 2001). The researchers were alloewed to pinpoint the areas of human brain responsible for the experience of religious transcendence by using the advance technology of brain imaging, hence, proving the existence of physiological basis for spiritual phenomena. Scientists hope to learn whether anyone can have such experiences and why spiritual experiences have the qualities they do by pinpointing the brain areas involved in spiritual experiences and tracing how experiences arise (Begley, A. and Underwood, A. 2001). The scientists are provided with clear picture of how human brains respond to stimulation of our senses and reveal functional differences of various brain regions by using advance methods and techniques employed by neuroscience like brain mapping and brain imaging. At University of Louisville School of Medicine, a clinical professor of family and community medicine, named Paul Simmons, states that the brain is ultimately related to the relationships with and the perceptions of God, so neurology is a good way to help theologians use all of their capacities to study God. Simmons also states that “our brain is basic to all that we are, all that we understand all that we perceive. In theology, we cannot avoid that any longer. We must be aware of the fact that many of our claims made about religion are actually based on science,” (Elliot, H., 2007). By defining the brain as physical and chemical, while the mind has to do with the thoughts and ideas, modern scientists differentiate between the brain and the mind. Ideas of Plato are focused on both the brain and the mind. According to Simmons, Aristotle argued that God is pure mind and since people have the brain they can think “God thoughts.” In addition to that, Aristotle also thought you could think pure thoughts and thus get right in touch with God (Elliot, 2007). Pioneer Brian Alston states that he is hopeful for the future of the discipline he has devoted himself to forming, despite the disapproval of some. In addition to that he also said that neurotheology will help scientists and theologians alike to navigate a world which is increasingly becoming a single community, a backyard. The authors which contend that the mind and the brain form a mystical union, providing the way humans experience, interpret, generate as well as mediate religious experience, are Dr. Andrew Newberg and the late Eugine D’ Aquili. The authors map how the mind experiences the sacred while focusing on structures that are most relevant to human experience, emotions, and cognition. They identify the biological mechanisms involved through research of neuroscience and they explore areas which include human myth making, ritual, liturgy, as well as theology. Moreover, they also proposed that Neurotheology serve as a meta-theology, a neuropsychological basis for the study of human primal patterns in comparative religions. Dr. Andrew Newberg is currently the director of Clinical Nuclear Medicine, Director of NeuroPET Research and Assistant Professor in the department of Radiology at University of Pennsylvania Hospital. He began his study of neuroscience with a pioneer in science and religion field, the late Dr. Eugene D’ Aquili. Dr. D’ Aquili was a graduate of Villanova University with dual major in philosophy and science. He began his career interested in integration of science, philosophy, religious phenomenology, as well as neuroepistemology. Authors connected to Neurotheology and information from their websites, article and book contributions on their positions. Michael Arbib is a Fletcher Jones Professor of Computer Science University, Professor of Biological Sciences, Biomedical Engineering, Neuroscience and Psychology Director of USC Brain Project. His works are expressed in his first book entitled “Brains, Machines and Mathematics,” published by McGraw hill in 1964. According to him in the current technological sense, the brain is not a computer. However, he has based his career on the argument that from studying brains we can learn about machines, and from studying machines, we can learn much about brains. He has always worked for an interdisciplinary environment in which computer scientist and engineers can talk to neuroscientists and cognitive scientists as well. His research primarily focused on coordination of perception ad action which is tackled at two different levels such as schema theory which is capable both in top-down analyses of brain function and human cognition and studies of machine vision and robotics as well as through the detailed analysis of neural networks, working closely with experimental findings of neuro scientists on humans and monkeys. Arbib (1964) is also engaged in Research on evolution of brain mechanisms for human language, pursuing the Mirror system for grasping to explain why human brains can acquire sign language as readily as speech. Arthur Deikman’s contribution is on consciousness. He suggested, in earlier experimental studies of meditation, that mystic phenomena are results of de-automatization of psychological structures which organize, limit, select, as well as interpret perceptual stimuli. His concept of de-automatization was drawn from the work of Heinz Hoffman who describes how motor behavior, perception and thinking are automatized, with constant repetition, intermediate steps in such processed is appear from consciousness, in the book “Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation” (McCown, D., 2002). Peter Haas currently works on science and religion Jewish perspective. There are several books and articles that he has published which deals with moral discourse and he has lectured in United States, Germany and Israel. Peter’s most recent work is on relationship between science as well as moral discourse (“About the Director: Peter Haas,” 2004). William Waldron, an Associate Professor of Religion at Middlebury College and a specialist in “Yogacara” Buddhism. In area of Buddhist consciousness theory, he has done extensive research. He has recently published the book entitled “The Buddhist Unconscious: The Alaya-vijnana in the Context of Indian Buddhist Thought.” He has also done interesting and extensive research in the area of comparative cognitive theory (Buddhism and Western Psychology), as well as comparative examinations of the notions of karma of Buddhist with the views of evolutionary biology (“William S. Waldron,” 2008). Along with others who subscribe to the same view, Amit Goswami, is convinced that the universe, in order to exist, requires a conscious perception to be aware of it. He claims that wiout observer it only exists as possibility. Goswami is building a case for a new paradigm called “monistic idealism,” the view of consciousness, not matter, is the foundation of everything that is, by marshalling evidence from recent research in cognitive psychology, biology, paraphychology and quantum physics as well as leaning heavily on the ancient mystical traditions of the world (Hamilton, C., 2008). The work and writing of Carol Albright examine the relationships among neuroscience, religious experience, theology, as well as complexity studies. She works on personal and spiritual development, ethics, and emergence. She is the first Lutheran woman who published a book of constructive theology, Ashbrook and Albright, The Humanizing Brain, 1997 (“Carol Rausch Albright,” 2004). Dr. Richard Castillo’s work involves the field of Psychology, Psychiatry, Cross-Cultural Studies, Anthropology as well as religion, and in all DSM-IV diagnostic areas, it also includes topics of mental illness and psychotherapy, shamanism, and cultural factors affecting dissociative disorders and relationship of dissiociative symptoms to schizophrenia as well as other psychotic disorders. Based on holistic paradigm that integrates known biological, psychological, social, and cultural factors, he presents a client-centered model of assessment and diagnosis (“Dr. Richard J. Castillo,” 2008). Michael Persinger has done more extensive work on experiences that are related to temporal lobe activity. A general hypothesis that mystical as well as other transformational experiences are artifacts of microseizures in the deep structures of temporal lobe was developed by Persinger (1983). He has further elaborated his model of temporal lobe involvement by focusing on left/right asymmetry, with the right temporal lobe as the source of experiences attributed to sources outside self. Gary Mears work centers on neuroscience and biology while the work of Jean Henry centers on cognitive science and psychology. Research interests of Dr. Thomas Parsons centers on cellular as well as molecular mechanisms of neurotransmitter release. His research focuses on pre-synaptic mechanisms of neurotransmitter release. Based on his research, hearing dictates the inner hair cell of the chochlea must release transmitter for prolong periods as well as with exquisite fidelity. To understand the cellular and molecular specializations utilized by different parts of the nervous system, mechanisms of neurotransmitter release are being studied, to meet their requirements for neurotransmission (“Thomas D. Parsons,” 2008). John Price worked for the Medical Research Council Psychiatric Unit. He also worked as a Consultant Psychiatrist in the NHS, and a former senior lecturer in Psychological Medicine at University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Recently, he was the Chairman of the section on Psychotherapy of the World Psychiatric Association (Stevens, A. and Price, J., 1996). The work of Neil Levy focuses on the links between ethical theory and practice as well as other disciplines, within and beyond philosophy. To develop a framework for the ethical regulation of technologies associated with sciences of the mind as well as to seek to understand the implications of these sciences for our conception of human agency, Levy, together with Jeanette Kennett hold an Australian Research council Grant (“Dr. Neil Levy: Ethical Issues in Biotechnology,” 2008). The research of Daniel Wilson centers on application of population genetics tools to solving problems in human infectious diseases. Another major interest of Daniel is detecting signature of natural selection within populations (“Daniel Wilson Home Page”) Russell Gardner and Gerald Cory are the edited “The Evolutionary Neuroethology of Paul McLean: Convergence and Frontiers.” Patrick Renvoise and Christopher Morin are SalesBrain Founders. They teach powerful teachniques on defining your message as well as delivering it with maximum impact (“Neuromarketing: Understanding the Buy Buttons in Your Customers Brain, 2006). In Michael Neilsen’s article, he describes points of intersection between peace psychology as well as Mormon culture and thought (Neilsen, M.E., 2004). Dan Levitin is an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology. He is now investigating on which part of the brain is used in order to learn as well as remember music (Martin, J. 2008). Dan Pink is the author “A Whole New Mind,” that charts the rise of right-brain thinking in modern economics (Herald, M., 2008). In explaining human behavior Dr. David Buss, applied the modern evolutionary theory. He is a professor of Psychology at University of Texas at Austin, also known for his research on evolutionary psychology on human sex differences in mate selection (Pressnell, F., 1999). Dr. Richard Restak is a neurologist, neuropsychiatrist, and clinical professor of neurology at George Washington University’s Medical Center. Restak is a bestselling author of 15 acclaimed books about the brain, which include “Mozart’s Brain and the Fighter Pilot” as well as “Poe’s Heart and the Mountain Climber” (“Richard Restak, M.D., 2008). Daniel Dennett’s research centers on the philosophy of mind, philosophy of science as well as philosophy of biology, particularly those fields that are related to evolutionary biology and cognitive science. Dennett is currently the director of Center for Cognitive Studies and Austin B. Fletcher Professor of Philosophy. He is also noted as atheist and advocate of the bright movement (“Daniel C. Dennett’s Home Page,” 2008). Joseph LeDoux is a neuroscientists, professor of Science, Neuroscience and Psychology in New York University, and his research interests mainly focused on the biological underpinnings of memory as well as emotion, especially the mechanism of fear. The work of Amygdala structure within the brain is one of his fascinating findings. Fear and other responses and actual processes information are mediated by amygdale, more quickly than other parts of the brain, which allows a rapid response that can save our lives before other parts of the brain had a chance to react. In addition to that he also offers findings and theories on how the brains handle extremely traumatic experiences (LeDoux, J., 1998). Eric Racine’s current research focuses on the public understanding of neuroscience as well as on ethical issues in the clinical application of neurological sciences and he has also published papers on the issue of public involvement in population genomics, and on moral reasoning in healthcare ethics committees (“Brainhood Project: Eric Racine,” 2006) . An Associate Professor of Religion at Theil College, Greg Peterson, is a regular contributor to “Zygon,” the author of the book “the God of Mind: Doing Theology Through the lens of Cognitive Science” (Peterson, G., 2001). David C. Geary is a cognitive developmental psychologist. He is interested in mathematical learning as well as in evolution and he has published articles which includes cognitive and developmental psychology, education, evolutionary biology and medicine (“David C. Geary,” 2007). Matthew Alper is a neurothologist. He is the Author of “The God Part of the Brain,” wherein he discussed his theory that “human beings are genetically hard wired to experience some form of spirituality.” Alper also suggested that as a way of coping with the inevitable knowledge of their deaths, over time humanity evolved in this direction. Moreover, he contends that being compelled to believe that there is something out there was developed in a region of the brain (Bell, A., 2004). Laurence McKinney is the Director of American Institute for Mindfulness in Arlington, Massachuusetts, one of the few who has successfully bridged the gap between the new technology and New Age spirituality. He teaches in Arlington Institute, publishes in the field of mind science as well as contemporary Buddhism, and manages a successful internet consulting firm (“Laurence O. McKinney,” 2008). Bernard Spilka (2003), synthesized in his book “The Psychology of Religion,” 3rd edition, classic as well as contemporary research on religious thoughts, belief, and behavior across the lifespan; the forms and meaning of religious experience; social psychology of religious organizations; and its connections to biology, morality, coping as well as mental health. Summary of Anthropology Contribution to Understanding of the Brain, Mind, and Beliefs from Perspectives of Culture, Ethnicity, Geography, Politics, Race and Others The study of how the brain as well as mind experience, interpret, generate and mediate belief phenomena is called Neurotheology. In order to explain and interpret the connections between beliefs and beliefs systems to thought, feeling, behavior and experience, it serves as a collaborative approach between, a range of disciplines. To establish comprehensive, interdisciplinary theories to understand beliefs is its primary goal. “Its disciplines involve eight dimensions with a wealth of perspectives: beliefs and belief system can be scientific or psychological, religious or mystical, economic or political, cultural or social with much influence from Technology as well as many ethical implications. There are four methods which serve to hold this diverse, at times contentious group together: 1) Ultimacy is Metaphysics/Paradigms/Research Programs that are ways to order our understanding of the Universe; 2) Typologies are ways in order to relate with diversity, sometimes opposing viewpoints in this diverse system. Like for example ways to engage the biblical literalist who believe in demons and devils, who reads events nature like earthquakes, as well as floods, hurricanes as eschatological signs to Darwinism evolutionist or a strict materialist; 3) Ritual Experience – whether we look at cell biology, to the firing of neurons to intrapersonal as well as interpersonal social actions in the world, we see patterns wherein William James refers to as Habit. We tend to repeat our steps in a number of ways. Whether it is in our use of scientific method or to achieve bliss or peace through meditative chant alone or prayers at a family dinner tables, or caught up in the singing worshiping services with hundreds or thousands, it is through ritual that w can make thought, feeling, behavior as well as experience happen; and 4) Inner Life – there are both internal and external qualities of beliefs. This principle recognizes that a lot of our disciplines have something significant to say about the inner life of life, human and otherwise interiority (Excerpt of an article from the Connecticut Presentation). Summary of Ethics Involving Brain, Mind, Belief Studies, and Neurotechnology and Instrumentation used like fMRI, PET, and others Through studies of other mammals, human brains post-mortem and observation of human behavior after brain injury, the research on the brain, historically, came and improvements in neurotechnology of the last 20 to 30 years are changing this. Perspectives on brain and its functioning with living objects are provided by Positron Emission Tomography or PET, Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography or SPECT, as well as Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging or fMRI. To study the brain activity of subjects drinking Coca Cola and Pepsi, participating in bipartisan political dialogue and even meditating as well as praying, researchers increasingly use these tools (Alston, 2006b). It is possible to accomplish the task of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), Positrom Emission Tomopography (PET) and Single Photon Emission Computed Tomopography (SPECT) with the emergence as well as rapid advancement of neurotechnology which provide perspective on the brain as well as its functioning with living subjects. According to Alston (2006b) increased activity in the reticular nucleus during meditation concomitant to the activity in the prefrontal cortex, are observed in the study using a single photon emission computed tomography. Researchers have demonstrated in another study using positron emission topography or PET, a significant increase in dopamine levels during the meditative practice on Yoga Nidra. This increase in dopamine is associated with the gating of cortical-subcortical interactions which lead to an overall decrease in active readiness. Ethical issues that are raised in the process of studying belief systems are examined in the ethics in numerology. In terms of pursuing knowledge, defining what is right or wrong is not always as straightforward as it might seem and determining where the dividing line is can get quite murky. In Neurotheology, the question of ethics has been addressed to some degree, but not in the context of full discussion of the various elements of the field. Such titles which are concerned with ethics include: 1) “Neuroethics: Defining the Issues in Theory,” by Judy Illes; 2) “Neuroethics: Mapping the Field” by Steven J. Marcus; and 3) “Nueroethics: Challenges for the 21st Century by Neil Levy (Alston, 2006d). Criticism of neurotheology, according to Alston, who studied ethics and philosophy at Yale Divinity School, depends on who is receiving the information and much of it has to do with the difference between the physical brain as well as the metaphysical mind. Ideas in the mind cause action, as some expert believe, while others say that chemicals in the brain cause action and if chemicals are altered in the brain, behaviors will change (Elliot, 2007). References About the Director: Peter Haas. (2004). Samuel Rosenthal Center for Judaic Studies. Cleveland, Ohio: Case Western Reserve University Alton, B.C. (2006a). Book Proposal: Neurotheology. Alston, B.C. (2006b). Neurology–The Science of Beliefs Perspectives on Religion from Neuroscience. Sarasota: Argosy University. 19 April 2006. pp. 1-11. Alston, B.C. (2006c). Power and Beliefs Perspective from Neurotheology: The New Discipline. 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