/ Detail of the Religion of the Sunni Muslim People - Research Paper Example

? Research/ Detail Paper of the Religion of the Sunni Muslim People Research/ Detail Paper of the Religion of the Sunni Muslim People Introduction Islam is the second largest religion in the world after Christianity. The adherents of Islam are referred to as Muslims and they worship Allah (God). Islam is monotheistic and Abrahamic, articulated by the holy book called Qur’an. Through the teachings of Prophet Muhammad, considered to be Allah’s last prophet, Muslims hold the Qur’an as Allah’s verbatim word and live by its teachings. Although several branches of Islam exist, Sunni Muslims are the largest by followership, accounting for about 80 percent of the world’s Muslim population, followed by the Shi’a at approximately 10 percent. As a branch of Islam, the Sunni emerged in the 7th century C.E. in the Middle East after disagreements arose over who would succeed Prophet Muhammad. At the height of the disagreement, the Sunni advocated for the selection of a successor (also referred to as caliph) by the entire Muslim community, but the Shi’a believed that Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law and also cousin, had been chosen by the prophet to succeed him. This paper will research specific features and viewpoints of the Sunni Muslim and describe their past, present and future. It will further highlight their conflicts and where they stand on the worldview and in the eyes of the US government and the Taliban. At this point, it is important to mention that the defining belief of the Taliban is Sunni Islam; however, their interpretation and practice of Islam, including Sharia law and female brutality, informed scholars’ decision to refer to them as fundamentalists or extremists (Goodson, 2002). The term Sunni is derived from the word Sunnah, which is an Arabic term that translates into “the traditions of Prophet Muhammad”. The Sunni Muslims agree with the other Islamic branches on many practical and theological aspects. This is because Islamic life stems from and is defined by Sharia (or Islamic) law. However, the areas that are unique to Sunni Muslims and set them apart from the start include the fact that they developed and grew from a controversy; they do not agree with claims that a successor was named by the prophet; they believed that companions of the prophet had authoritative leadership; and they relied on the consensus of scholars and religion. More contemporarily is their typical emphasis of Allah’s power and how he determines human fate. Their definition of what it entails being a Muslim is more inclusive, and that is why their tradition places prominence on the functions of religion in family (such as marriage, inheritance, divorce), political and public life (Goodson, 2002). For a better insight into Sunni Muslims, the research will be split into sections. Further, because the essence of Sunni Muslims is founded on their differences with the Shi’a Muslims, comparisons between the two will be used for the purpose of emphasis. History Although the Sunni would later develop theological and legal traditions and structures over the centuries, its fundamental origins are embedded in the caliph succession dispute. The 632 C.E. death of Muhammad pitted the Muslim community into a leadership wrangle because Muhammad did not have living heirs, who were required to be male. Without one that the community could agree upon, it followed that they split along the lines of choice of a leader, ending up with the Sunni and Shi’a. Each sect had several subdivisions, but the Sunni and the Shi’a still represent the key divide in Islam (Johnson, 2010). Those who did not back the leadership of Ali adopted the name Sunni, which is a term that derives from ahl al-sunna wa al-jamaa. This is an Arabic phrase referring to a group of people who consider themselves to follow the ways of the prophet and are people of the community. They decided that the next caliph should come from the Quraysh tribe, to which the prophet belonged. Literature on Sunni history indicates that while the prophet was ailing, he had designated Abu Bakr, his companion, to lead communal prayers. According to their traditions, leading prayers in times of the prophet’s sickness signifies an heir to authority (Johnson, 2010). Eventually, through a delegation of emigres from Medina and Mecca, Abu Bakr was made the leader, which put an end to dynastic succession. Mecca was Muhammad’s birthplace, and the Medinans supported the Meccans. Abu Bakr was succeeded by Umar ibn al-Khattab upon his death in 634 C.E. After 10 years, he was murdered and succeeded by Utham ibn Affan. Both Umar and Utham belonged to the Quraysh tribe. Just like Umar, Utham was also murdered. It is his death in 656 C.E. that ingrained the long-standing sectarian association. This was because Uthman’s supporters claimed laxity on Ali’s side in fighting crime after he became a caliph, leading to what was the first civil war in Islam, called fitna, lasting from 656 C.E. to 661 C.E. However, it is worth noting that, owing to his relation to Muhammad and having converted early to Islam, Ali was held in high regard by both sides of the divide, but his caliphate cemented the permanent being of the Sunni Muslims. Through the continuing conflicts that kept rocking the Muslim community in its first century, the Sunni gained prominence (Johnson, 2010). Contemporary Age After the colonial era came to an end around the world, modern Sunni Islam has largely been shaped by reformists (Vidino, 2010). Social, doctrinal and educational movements have globalised the Sunni view. What a majority of the reformists have in common is the basis of their concept, which is bent on returning to original principles based on the life of Muhammad. This belief further has its roots in a teaching, or hadith, as presented by Muhammad. He taught that there will be a leader in each generation who will renew the faith, or mujaddid, and inspire reform (Vidino, 2010). The modern name given to such movements advocating for a return to first-generation values by the Sunni is salafism, Arabic for predecessor. Fundamental Sunni Features These aspects are manifested in modern day Sunni beliefs which are a reflection of where they came from. They hold that there is no ground for leaders to come from a class of hereditary privileged individuals. They also do not conform to the notion of intercession or reverence of saints. To the Sunni, saints are only viewed as individuals who bear strong faith in the Qur’an’s teaching, but not its only legitimate interpreters. This sets them apart from other counterparts in faith. Their present day view of leadership is that it is has never and should never be a birthright but rather, an earned trust which the people can give or take away (Friedmann, 2003). This is a specifically fundamental feature of the Sunni. Leadership can be awarded to any practicing Muslim upon consensus by the subjects and the authorities. This makes them believe that to date, the only legitimate successors of prophet Muhammad were the four caliphs though to be guided rightly; Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Utham ibn Affan and Ali ibn Talib (Friedmann, 2003). From history, it can be learned that Sunni Islam was politically started as a sect, but increasing theological differences over the years made it more unique. While other Islam faiths developed a belief in imamate, the Sunni distinctively stuck to caliphs, who they viewed as worldly leaders. Imams are considered by the Sunni to be among the hereditary privileged class who are forced upon people as leaders, whereas they only need to be prayer leaders. In fact, the translation of Imam means a Shi’a descendant from the lineage of Ali. This aspect gives another angle to the fundamental distinctions between the Sunni and Shia and how they developed; that of conflicting character of religious authority (Vidino, 2010). Principally, the Sunni Muslims seek Allah directly without the services of a mediator. Sunni religious leaders in the present day may be vested with grand social or political powers, but only groups of socially relevant faithful in each community are charged with the responsibility of the general running of the mosque and the land belonging to it (Vidino, 2010). Worldview of Sunni Muslim People In 1928, the Muslim Brotherhood was founded by Hassan al-Banna, a Sunni Muslim, in Egypt. The Brotherhood has had a significant, albeit controversial, political presence beyond Egypt and the Gaza Strip, spreading to North America and Europe, where they formed national Muslim organizations that claim to represent Islam in non-Muslim states. According to Islamic law scholars, it is important to note that while discussing the Muslim Brotherhood, since it is a Sunni organization, the views they represent and advocate for are largely Sunni (Friedmann, 2003). Al-Banna’s, and by extension the Muslim Brotherhood’s and the Sunni Muslims’ fundamental objectives were to free the Islamic fatherland from any foreign domination and, create free Islamic states on all free land that will act in conformity with Islamic teachings. According to the Sunni, al-Banna’s writings summerise worldview into four key concepts as below: 1. Islam is the complete and perfect life The Sunni opine that Islam is inherently a faultless social organisation structure that includes all the aspects of life. Therefore, it becomes the only all-encompassing life concept that normalise all affairs of life and the reason why Muslims cannot detach religion from politics. The Sunni Muslims were taught by al-Banna to defend their appeal to Islam and call the world to it (Sunni Islam). Their efforts to call the world to Islam (especially Sunni Islam) are evident in the upheavals witnessed in the Arab world as late as the 21st century. This is particularly manifested by differences in views that culminate into the conflicts witnessed recently between the Sunni and Shi’a Muslims (Friedmann, 2003). 2. The Western world is corrupt and immoral Perhaps in recognition of how Islam and Western values were at odds, the Muslim Brotherhood defined all the principles of Western culture as negative. Al-Banna instilled in them that Western cultures are founded on principles that aim to abolish religion from social life, especially in learning institutions, law courts and the state. They hold that non-Muslim societies are all inherently materialistic, marked by denunciation of the spirit and uncertainty in God in their retaining of Christianity. In particular, the Sunni believe that the Western world and all its adherents are characterised by their unconsciousness of punishment or reward in the next world (or life) and are fixed on the limitations of tangible existence. The Sunni see the world as weakened morally, corrupted spiritually, unable to guarantee human happiness and security. They view this as a threat because the corruption has encroached the Muslim community worldwide through Western companies, capital and banks. To the Sunni, the cultural “pollution” is more perilous than the Western military or political imperialism (Friedmann, 2003). 3. All legislation in the world must be based on Islam Again, this is based on the Sunni perception that their faith is the only complete life covering politics and law and, therefore, any positive and constitutional law must have its roots in Islam. The present day Sunni Muslims stress that al-Banna taught that every country’s legal structure must be derived from Islamic sacred laws that the citizens have recourse on all legal matters. They believe that only Islamic jurists guided by Islamic jurisprudence can deliver excellent justice that includes all contingencies. Al-Banna wrote a letter in 1936 based on Sunni sentiments to the Egyptian king and rulers of all Islamic countries calling for, among others, action to prepare for the reinstatement of the caliphate; law reforms in all branches to match Islamic legislation; entrenchment of Islam in all public departments to compel employees to adhere to Islam; and the implementation of severe (including capital) punishment for moral wrongs. Some contents of al-Banna’s letter were based on general, classic Qur’an teachings; however, he made it a typical Sunni affair by emphasising on the reinstatement of the caliphate, and the fact that it will be fronted by the Muslim Brotherhood, a Sunni outfit (Friedmann, 2003). 4. It was God’s commandment that Islam conquers and rules the world As the Sunni belief of Islam being the only complete life guides them, they believe that the European’s materialistic civilisation should not be allowed to rule the world. Therefore, Islam must conquer and take over in order to bring happiness. It is a Sunni belief that they were appointed by the Qur’an to act as custodians over humanity, which grants them authority over the world. It is, therefore, an Islamic duty to institute autonomy over the world and protect Islamic teachings. This line of argument has widely been used by the Sunni in support of the offensives they launch to expand Islamic borders, also referred to as jihad (Friedmann, 2003). Sunni Muslims in the eyes of the US Government It can be shown that the way the US government perceives the Sunni Muslims is seen globally as full of contradiction. Their relation is rife with turmoil that majorly arises from the conflict between the Sunni Muslims and Shi’a Muslims. It would seem logical for the US to back only the forces that are not publicly advocating or secretly financing rebellion against its government. Therefore, it becomes an American interest to get rid of fundamentalists in the Muslim world who are hostile their interests (Vidino, 2010). Presently, the US government’s support for Sunni Muslims is apparent, where they have taken their side during conflicts with Shi’a governments in, for example, Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Perhaps the most recent contradicting incidence is the Syrian issue, where the opposition is made up of factions of Sunni Muslim fundamentalists engaged in vicious attacks against each other more than they fight the incumbent Shi’a regime. To a casual observer, it does not make sense that the US government, with support from their Qatari, Turkish and Saudi allies, should back the Sunni Muslims in Syria against the Shi’a regime and their allies. This is because both the Sunnis and the Iran-supported Shi’as are similarly anti-US. Controversially, the supposed US allies (Qatar and Saudi Arabia) continue to extravagantly finance forces that oppose the principles the US government stands for (Vidino, 2010). One explanation given for the US support for the Sunni Muslims, and by extension hostility towards the Shi’a, is that Islam in Western universities is taught from a Sunni perspective (Goodson, 2002). It is taught that the Shi’a faith is sacrilege and, therefore, not the authentic Islam. Since US government experts on Islam and the Middle East regard Shi’a Muslims as Islam’s branch of terrorists, it can only be conclude that the US is pro-Sunni Islam. At this point, another point of conflict becomes apparent. Iraq’s Saddam Hussein was a Sunni who oppressed the majority Shi’a (Iraq is a Shi’a-majority state) and the West did nothing about it. But, after the war in Kuwait, the US (President Bush) backed calls for the Shi’a to overthrow Saddam (Vidino, 2010). However, Saddam’s forces crushed them (the Shi’a) brutally in the South. It can, therefore, be concluded that the Sunni Muslims’ appearance in the eyes of the US government is basically shaped, apart from their interests in their own principles, by the conflicts between the Sunni Muslims and the Shi’a Muslims. It is worth noting that even with all the support the Sunni Muslims are getting from the US government, the extremist group, Taliban, is Sunni. The Taliban have frustrated several US initiatives, including giving refuge to Osama bin Laden and his terrorist group, al-Qaeda, in Afghanistan (Vidino, 2010). Sunni Muslims in the eyes of the Taliban The Taliban is a militarised faction of the Sunni Muslims. However, they differ in their extremist ways, whereby the Taliban harshly interpret Sharia laws. Their operations indicate that they have little regard for the original Sunni Muslim community. Although the Taliban are essentially Sunni Muslims, their views do not necessarily reflect those of the whole Sunni community. For instance, when they took over power in Afghanistan in 1996, which is a Sunni-majority country, they applied their harsh policies indiscriminately to all. They fell out of favor with most after their treatment of moral affairs, especially towards women, became unbearable. In recent times, the Taliban have differed with conformist Sunnis when they found common ground to partner with Shi’as against US interests (Vidino, 2010). For example, with total disregard to the larger Sunni community, the Taliban has in the recent past built ties with Iran, a Shi’a-majority nation. This move is considered strategic in an effort to further frustrate US initiatives. After the Taliban built ties with Iran, Iran threatened to trigger aggression in Afghanistan should the US attack its nuclear facilities. This move brews controversy because Afghanistan’s majority are Sunnis, from who the Taliban splintered from, again confirming that they do not have the interests of the rest of the Sunni Muslims at heart. Iran previously blamed the Taliban for the murder of nine of its diplomats, raising fears that an attack would be launched against the Taliban in reprisal. However, the shifting of ground by the Taliban puts them at odds with the mainstream Sunni, because the Taliban and Iran have been spying on each other for more than a decade. Therefore, it can be seen that although the Taliban stemmed from the mainstream Sunni Muslims, they do not particularly regard them in high esteem (Johnson, 2010). Future of Sunni Muslims Since the best way to wholly describe the origins of Sunni Muslims, their development and present status is via comparison to the Shi’a, even their future must be forecast relative to the Shi’a. Although continued sectarian intensification is inevitable, the two sects can mutually gain if they respect the precepts of the other. On a wider scale, the sectarian tension mirrors the Western strategies of forging regional alliances against Iran. However, the two sects are better placed than any external players, scholars or otherwise, to know that there is nothing fated or inevitable in their conflict. The peaceful growth of each can only be realised through the Muslim governments respecting their citizens’ rights, regardless of religious alignment. First and foremost, all Muslim nations must stop misusing religion as a tool of foreign policy and security. In this regard, Sunni-majority countries must respect and hold the minority Shi’a population as equals. Then, the world powers must refrain from (and Muslim countries must not let them) manipulating sectarian divides while pursuing their interests. For the sake of their future stability and prosperity, Sunni Muslims must remember that history bears witness. Giving in to manipulations from external powers can only bring short term benefits which are inevitably laden with long term losses (Johnson, 2010). References Friedmann, Y. (2003). Tolerance and coercion in Islam: Interfaith relations in the Muslim tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Goodson, L. P. (2002). Afghanistan's endless war: State failure, regional politics and the rise of the Taliban. Washington: University of Washington Press. Johnson, I. (2010). A mosque in Munich. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Vidino, L. (2010). The new Muslim Brotherhood in the West. New York: Columbia University Press. Read More