World Religions From A Healthcare Perspective - Essay Example

? World Religions from a Healthcare Perspective First and College First and Department..., University of... [Student’s First and Last Name] is now at Department of..., University of... This research was in part supported by the grant awarded to [Student’s First and Last Name] by [Sample Grant Programme]. Correspondence concerning this research paper should be addressed to [Student’s First and Last Name], Department..., University of..., [Address] Contact: World Religions from a Healthcare Perspective 2. American Indian Religions The issue of determining the exact correlation between the American Indian religious traditions and their impact upon the healthcare provision for American Indian patients is complicated by the specific character of American Indian religious practices. In fact, proceeding from the information included in this chapter, it may even be claimed that there is no such thing as a unified American Indian religion whatsoever. This is supported both by the incredible diversity of tribal groups and nations among American Indians and Alaska Natives, and, on the other hand, by the absence of the organized religion (in the Western sense at least) among many of these peoples. The painful history of relations between the US Government and various Indian tribes had its brunt on the state of the healthcare provision to the American Indians, among other things. While the Indian Health Service (IHS) was established in 1955 to provide primary and comprehensive health care to the American Indians, many of the latter reside in metropolitan areas which lie outside the field of the HIS competence. This complicates the situation with regard to health care provision and creates significant discrepancies in respect of the interrelations between the IHS and conventional healthcare providers, on the one hand, and the traditional tribal elders, on the other. When speaking on the subject of the specificity of American Indian religious traditions, it is necessary to observe that the practitioners of American Indian beliefs have a significantly different concept of the world than those of theistic religions. Unlike linear concepts of the proceedings of the world inherent in the latter, the American Indian belief traditions assume the circular development of the world, which is aimed at perceiving the world as a harmonious whole. Subsequently, the centre of this whole is construed as a state of peace and balance, including peace of mind, which informs the general understanding of the world in Indian religious traditions. Therefore the idea of healthcare provision in American Indian tradition is directly intertwined with the notion that the surrounding world is infused with spiritual energy that may be embodied in particular healing substances such as some herbs. In practical dimension, this means that the concept of healthcare in American Indian worldview is directly connected with the idea of healing by nature’s aid and that of connection between the spiritual and physical health of the patient. Therefore the taking into account of such complexities is absolutely necessary when dealing with American Indian patients. 3. Hinduism The essence of Hinduism as a set of religious practice lies not so much in the regulation of the practitioners’ beliefs than in the regulation of the latter’s behavior. In reality, Hinduism can scarcely be characterized as a unified religion arising out of the certain consensus, as the majority of its practitioners belong to different sects and sub-cultures. Nevertheless, there are some common tenets that bring different strands of the Hindu religion together. On the one hand, Hinduism is characterized by its reliance on the preceding, Vedic tradition that emphasizes the importance of ritualistic devotion to the gods, the maintenance of the devotee’s duties before the social structure and the world in general, the existence of the complex cycle of life and death, where the souls of the dead may follow either the road of suffering or the path to liberation. This concept of karmic duty has a strong bearing on the daily behavior of the common Hindus. This has its repercussions for the perception of health care procedures in the Hindu world as well. For instance, for Hindus the idea of attainment of spiritual liberation (moksha) has a higher relevance than the maintenance of worldly well-being, which is considered fundamentally fleeting. The Hindu tradition has a long-lasting legacy of ideas on health and diseases which are mainly incarnated in the form of the Ayurveda religious hymns. The latter are mainly devoted to the subjects of life and longevity. Among other things, these include the problems of general medical principles, pathology, diagnosis, prognosis, therapeutics, etc. Such high level of attention to the problems of healthcare in Hindu tradition is one of the reasons for current highly sophisticated character of the Hindu folk medicine that is still widely used both in India and in Hindu migrant communities. With regard to the specific issues of healthcare provision in Hindu tradition and its relevance for modern healthcare providers, it should be noted that the Hindu medical tradition strongly emphasizes the maintenance of balance of substances in human organism. The Hindu medical thought has traditionally asserted that the main cause of various maladies is the imbalance of certain substances, the exact composition of which is assumed to be dependent on particular type of individual’s basic nature, the specific archetypes being vata (ether and air), pitta (earth and fire), and kapha (water and earth). Different types of diet, etc. are recommended to the individuals belonging to each type. In modern conditions, the Hindu medical traditions should be taken into account during the treatment of patients belonging to Hindu religion. The traditional Hindu non-violence and adherence to scripture may influence the patients’ attitude to blood transfusions, transplantation operations, artificial life support, etc. 4. Buddhism The religious tradition of Buddhism emphasizes the principles of non-violence and avoidance of extremes (i.e. either pleasure or self-denial), so that the attitude of practicing Buddhists to the issues of healthcare provision is rather similar to that of Hindus. Nonetheless, there are certain complexities in Buddhist religious doctrines that inform the perspectives of its practitioners with regard to healthcare. Unlike Hinduism, the Buddhist religion acknowledges the emptiness and illusory character of the existing world, which is considered to be not merely sinful but actually unreal. The state if quiescence, of oblivion (nirvana), is believed to be essential for the purposes of attaining salvation from the worldly vices. Therefore, unlike in Hinduism, the issues of physical fitness may be considered far less important in the opinion of a faithful Buddhist. In addition, it should be noted that Buddhism is characterized by far more rigid codification of desirable/undesirable practices for the believers. In addition to such deeds that are prohibited in many religions, as taking one’s life, sexual immortality and intoxication, the Buddhist moral code censures eating at a wrong time, entertainment and self-adornment, and even luxury and extravagance in general. Of course, in reality not too many believers may choose to practice all these tenets at the same time; however, such practices may be observed by some Buddhist patients, and the healthcare practitioners should take their spiritual preferences into account. The Buddhist concept of living lays a strong emphasis on the idea of impermanence (anikta) of the existing reality. This impermanence is conceived as inherent in the processes of life and death, birth and resurrection. The death is regarded as a mere passage from one state of existence of a soul to another. Buddhism shares the concept of karma with Hinduism, but ascribes to it a more impersonal character than it is conceived in Hinduism. Buddhism pays much less attention to the ideas of the presence of divinities in surrounding world than Hinduism does. It is non-theistic religion in essence, based on the concept of no-self (anatta), which denies the permanence of individual psychological formations. That is why Buddhists may have a rather different concept of personal suffering than the practitioners of Western religions. This should be taken into account likewise. Finally, it should be noted that, despite its highly non-materialist character, the Buddhist philosophy pays substantial amount to the issues of health and disease as well. The active life and good health are directly predicated upon the following of the precepts of spiritual life, which include practicing meditation and exerting moderation in all deeds. Consequently, disease is construed as a result of ignorance that led to the craving desire, indulgence and impunity. The outcome of such impunity is viewed as leading to disharmony at the physical, emotional, and spiritual levels, which culminate in disease. Such spirituality-centered approach informs the general understanding of problems of disease and healthcare by most practicing Buddhists. In total, the Buddhist approach towards healthcare is more spirit-based than that of Western medicine. The efficiency of Buddhist model of healthcare may have been supported by the observations of certain researchers that testify to the positive impact of the Buddhist meditational practices upon spiritual and even physical health of some Buddhist patients. At the same time, it should not be forgotten that the health treatment methods of the Western medicine should not be ignored when dealing with Buddhist patients, but merely adapted to their needs and belief systems. It should be observed, in particular, that in dealing with highly problematic cases such as those of abortion, the Buddhist patients may base their decisions on the concept of karmic compassion that should guide their action. This is an utmost factor in determining in their decision on this matter. 5. Chinese Religions The most spectacular feature of the Chinese religions is their diversity: while Confucianism is mainly a moralistic doctrine determining the social roles of the members of Chinese society, and Taoism represents an ancient mystical tradition, the folk religions of China are primarily based on the combination of these former teachings and Buddhism, pursuing mainly the practical concerns of the faithful. Therefore the application of the tenets of Chinese religions to the health matters depends on the taking account of the diverse teachings of these religious traditions. The Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is mainly based on the Taoist teachings that emphasize the necessity of harmonious co-existence with nature and the maintenance of balance in human mind and body. The diverse folk religions of China have appropriated the teachings of Taoism in this regard, and they became widespread among the adherents of manifold Chinese religious traditions. The main ontological concept that continues to underpin the traditional Chinese understanding of human health, that of ch’i, defines the vital substance of the universe that is supposedly interfused with all other aspects and elements of the existence, including human body and mind. Both bodily and social harmony arises out of the necessary balance of ch’i; therefore, in order to combat the tendencies towards disease, it is necessary to channel one’s ch’i in the direction of such a balance. For this reason, the main schools of Chinese moral and religious thoughts have always emphasized both virtue- and harmony-based character of human health and morality. Nonetheless, there are significant differences between respective Chinese religious teachings with respect to their attitude towards different aspects of human existence. While Confucianism pays utmost attention to the problems of virtuous lifestyle, Taoism is mainly concerned with personal harmonious life and longevity. The traditional Chinese ethical principle of “benevolence for all”, which finds wide application in medical practices, is therefore derived from both strands of Chinese religious tradition: that of Confucian concept of harmonious social relationships and that of Taoist idea of balanced self, which exists in harmonious interaction with nature. Subsequently, it may be said that Chinese practices with regard to disease and health are deeply impregnated with religious overtones. Both funeral rituals that mark the deep connection between living humans and their ancestors (according to Confucian tenets) and traditional techniques of Chinese medicine (acupuncture, herbal practice and exercise) are influenced by spiritualistic ideas of various Chinese religions. In particular, acupuncture is aimed at restoring the supposedly broken balance in the circulation of ch’i through the human body’s major organs, while mind therapy, or mind-body exercise, is a reflection of a Taoist idea on interconnectedness between mental self-awareness and bodily health. 6. Sikhism Sikhism is one of the heterodox religious teachings having originated on the boundary between Hinduism and Islam. Having adopted some crucial tenets of both religious traditions, it represents one of the examples of a successful religious synthesis. The most distinguishing feature of Sikhism is its concept of the existence of One God, or the Absolute, that is counterpoised to the multitude of gods in Hinduism, yet at the same time is more abstract than Allah in Islam. According to the teachings of Sikhism’s founder, Guru Nanak (1463-1536), the Absolute is dualistic: It is simultaneously nirgun (formless, without qualities) and sargun (with qualities, form). Therefore, in order to achieve the spiritual perfection, the human beings, which are necessarily ego-centered, should drop off their egotistical cravings and seek to merge themselves with the Absolute. Such a concept is more close to Hindu tradition, than to an Islamic one. The exact attainment of the condition of non-duality is considered to be possible through naam (the Name), which is in fact a specific meditative practice of constant remembrance or repetition of one or another of the mystical names of the God. Such practice is held to be possible only under spiritual tutelage of guru (the teacher). That is why the figure of a guru plays an incredibly important role in a Sikh religious tradition. The Sikh views on health and disease are, if anything, heterodox. According to the prevailing Sikh concept, the state of health itself is necessarily imaginary, as “dis-ease”, or the state of existing in time and the world without being attuned to their inner changes, is a chronic state of each and every human individual. The state of ego, rather than some kind of bodily dysfunction, is the main reason for the sickness and disease, according to Sikh teachings. Nonetheless, despite such peculiar understanding of the nature of disease and health, the Sikh religion is known for its highly positive attitude towards building new hospitals and places for the sick. This is mainly caused by the Sikhs’ focus on accumulation of memory traces constituting one’s soul. Likewise, this belief finds its expression in the common acts of organ donation, which is viewed as an expression of selfless giving idea. In general, the Sikh religious tradition places the highest virtue upon the idea of salvation through the achievement of a spiritual non-duality. Therefore various particular issues of health care (such as abortion) are viewed through this lens. 7. Islam The main distinguishing feature of Islam is an underpinning belief in the unity of God (Allah) and the spectacular prophetic mission of Muhammad. The ideas of unity of Islamic community and the necessity to maintain social justice are the other important features of Muslim faith, which provide for its specific character in the modern world. In particular, the Five Pillars of Islam, the core practices of Islam as a religion, include the practice of giving alms to the destitute (zakat). With respect to health and disease issues, it is necessary to note that Islam places special importance upon the issues of curing infertility (as the latter is viewed as unfortunate). At the same time, the problem of abortion has become the source for intense controversies amongst various Islamic legal schools, with the result that the designation of specific timeline for the permissibility of abortion varies widely across different schools of the Sunni Islam. The Islamic concept of human self portrays human beings as composed of two antagonistic elements: that of divine breath (fitrah), which confers upon human beings sublime motivations, and that of mud, which embodies various base desires. The complex interplay of these two factors influence the formation of human personality. Likewise, Islam avoids the concept of original sin, which plays an important role on Christianity, viewing instead humans as naturally good beings that are only later corrupted by sin. In general, though, the whole human life on the earth is viewed as mere precursor to the future, eternal life. The time for one’s death is regarded as divinely predestined. Certain rituals are recommended for the purposes of maintenance of modesty at the time of death; in particular, the segregation between sexes is considered important at the time of funeral. The ritual washing and recital of specific Qur’an verses is required before the funeral of the deceased. This should be taken into account in the course of respective hospital practice. Even though the human suffering is viewed as the direct consequence of a sinful nature of humans and divine retribution, Qur’an specifically encourages the application of palliative health care in order to alleviate pain of the sick. That is why some passive forms of euthanasia may be allowed by certain Islamic traditions. 8. Judaism The oldest of Abrahamic faiths, Judaism’s view of human life and health is based on the assertion that human breath is directly granted by the God and on the concern with respect to the human following of the Divine project for life on the earth. The specific pronouncements of some of the holy texts of Judaism directly reflect this religion’s concern with health of the believers. For instance, the concept of the mystical singularity of human creation is invoked in the rabbinic teachings to propound the idea of the primary sanctity of every human life. Some more specific commandments of Talmudic Scriptures with regard to the sanctity of the art of healing undoubtedly contributed to the popularity of the physician’s profession among the Jewish community. The specific nature of Judaism lies in its foundation on practical commandments, rather than abstract beliefs. Therefore the principles of Judaic faith, such as the idea of covenantal relationship (brit) between the God and the People of Israel, bear more practical than theoretical character. For instance, the principle of saving a life (piku’ah nefesh) may go so far as justifying the overturning of the majority of the commitments mentioned in the Torah. At the same time, the principle of the existent life taking precedence over the potential one opens the way for a more tolerant attitude to abortion issues when the life of a mother is threatened. Nonetheless, this very same principle affects the issues of the organ transplantation, with the rabbinic authorities accepting it only after the anti-rejection drugs were successfully tested. The Judaic ritualistic life is characterized by the observance of the wide array of holy days, in particular the Sabbath day, or Saturday, which are usually accompanied by ritualistic restrictions in the observers’ behavior (such as fasting). In addition, Judaism is characterized by more systematized dietary system, the kashrut (“fit”), with kosher foodstuffs being admitted to consumption by the believers. Generally speaking, the meat of only those animals that chew their cud and have cloven, split hoofs, is considered kosher by religious Jews. With regard to fish, only those species that have both fins and scales are allowed. Judaism is marked by profound respect towards the physician’s profession, which is mainly explained by this religion’s emphasis on the purity of bodily fluids that have always required medical education for many of its spiritual leaders. With respect to bioethical issues, Judaism is less orthodox with regard to abortion than many other religions, viewing human fetuses as only potential, rather than existent life (see above). 9. Christianity As Christianity is the most popular religion across the globe, it has a great number of offshoots and distinct religious currents, some of which follow drastically different viewpoints on the issues of health care. Both “primitive” and highly sophisticated methods of healing and health education are employed by various Christian communities round the world, and therefore the unified attitude of Christians to these problems is hard to establish. Nonetheless, some basic tenets thereof may be defined. The view of Christians on human body is mostly positive, as extreme asceticism is no longer practiced save for some most orthodox monastic orders or sectarian communities. Unlike many Eastern religions, Christianity does not pursue the flight from this world in search of spiritual unity with the Absolute. Its teachings on human health are centered mostly on the concept of balanced existence ‘here and now’. Subsequently, Christian teachings distinguish three main causes for human diseases: that of imbalance in human life, that of disregard for some important aspects of existence, and the one of dysfunction. Some Christian denominations believe that pain is the result of the God’s design, and should not be alleviated; nonetheless, the majority of the religion’s adherents believe that the alleviation of the other’s sufferings is their religious duty. In this respect, the problem of discrepancy between the existence of benevolent God and the existence of evil is often posed but never solved (the problem of ‘theodicy’). With regard to more conventional healthcare concerns, the issues of procreation, abortion and fertility poses the largest difficulty for modern Christians, as evidenced by frequent debates on the permissibility of abortion and/or artificial insemination, stem cell research, etc. Different groups of Christian take widely divergent positions on these issues. For instance, Roman Catholics are more restrictive, strictly condemning most of these practices, while Mainline Protestants often take more liberal approach. The same problem arises in respect of the issue of homosexuality. Evangelical Protestants, Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians generally take a rather hard-line approach on this issue, viewing heterosexuality as the only natural state of human sexual life, referring to the example of Adam and Eve. At the same time, Mainline Protestants are more lenient, observing that cultural norms and scriptural precepts of the biblical times that condemned homosexuality refer more to that time’s biases than to the eternal will of God. In any case, this subject, as elsewhere, remains a cause for intense controversies. 10. Recent Religious Movements in America The development of the new Protestant movements, caused by the advent of the 19th century’s religious awakening, led to the emergence of the new doctrines on health care issues that accompanied the formulation of these movements’ overall religious doctrines. For instance, Latter-day Saints view a human body as an integral part of the human existence, as the human spirit is connected with the body for the duration of a mortal life on earth. The Latter-day Saints consider the human body to be a basis for a further spiritual progression that is set to continue even after the expiration of the individual’s life in this world. Therefore the Latter-day Saints view the consumption of alcohol, tobacco, coffee and narcotics to be contrary to the Divine laws on health. Even the cola drinks are prohibited, as they are considered to be contributing to habit-forming. The Latter-day Saints believe in the future total vegetarianism during the realm of Jesus, but none of their members is required to be a vegetarian ‘here and now’. The Latter-day Saints take highly conservative positions on the problems of sexual activity, marriage, homosexuality, and oppose abortion, believing it to be a violation of the biblical prohibition of manslaughter. Another important heterodox Protestant denomination, the Seventh-Day Adventists, make the healthcare issues a thing of utmost importance. This is perhaps caused by the fact that the church’s teachings reject the orthodox view on the contradistinction between human body and soul. Instead, the Seventh-Day Adventists believe that human person is a whole soul that ceases to exist at the time of his/her death. Consequently, the teachings of the church emphasize the harmonious development and maintenance of the physical, mental and spiritual health of individual. Their basic views on the issues of sexual reproduction and dietary regulations are virtually identical to those of the Latter-day Saints. The views of such denominations as Christian Scientists and Jehovah’s Witnesses on the healthcare issues are even more unorthodox. For instance, as Christian Scientists believe that all material reality is basically an illusion, their preferred way of treating the diseases is not through conventional medicine, but by means of specific prayers and use of scriptures. Even though many members of the church do seek modern medicine treatment in case of need, they generally prefer avoiding drugs and pain relief. Christian Scientists do not have any official position on abortion and homosexuality. Finally, Jehovah’s Witnesses are most famous for their opposition to blood transfusion and organ transplantation. Such position is bolstered by the references to condemnation of eating of meat without blood removed, which has led the church to supporting research in bloodless surgery techniques. The Jehovah’s Witnesses’ position on homosexuality and extramarital sexual activities is overwhelmingly negative. Read More