Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament - Book Report/Review Example

 Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament Brief Summary of the Book: Published in 2006, the book under examination with the title Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament serves as a remarkable historical research volume by John W. Walton, which aims to investigate into the art and culture, cult and religious values, literary developments and social traits, and norms and traditions, attributed to the people belong to ancient near east (ANE) civilization, by making its comparison with the tales and narratives discussed in the Biblical Scriptures i.e. Old and New Testaments. The author has applied a thorough comparative research methodology, with the help of available relics related to the ancient civilizations of Babylonia and Egypt, in order to extract the roots of these ancient civilizations and their impact on the thought and teachings of two primary Abrahamic faiths including Judaism and Christianity. The main purpose behind conducting such an in-depth research includes exploration of the (mis)conception whether or not the Biblical narrations are actually the reflection of ANE civilization, and thus do not maintain any spiritual significance as these are proclaimed to be heavenly revelations by the Jews and Christians (17-18). Walton has divided his work into five parts; the first part could be stated as the introductory one, which reflects upon the contradictory views of the scholars and researchers in favor of as well as against the misconception that the Biblical tales have sought inspirations from their social, political and religious environment, and depicted the same thoughtfulness existed at the eve of the revelation of the Scripture in Mesopotamia and Egypt (29-31). Thus, worldview presents the opinions of various authors regarding the origin and development of Hebrew Bible. The author has included major literary works of ANE is Part II of the book under-analysis, which draw out the social condition and literary development of the near east in ancient times. Walton has also included the religious cult, rituals, concept of gods and goddesses and prevailing mythology in the regions (89) in order to present a comprehensive picture of the traditions followed by the populations belonging to ANE in order to make a comparative analysis of monotheist Judaism with the pluralist Egyptian and Babylonian faiths of that era (113-15). Part III of Walton’s work encompasses the religious values and basic concepts of the faith followed by the people of ANE. This part of the book actually presents the strong contradiction and denial of the claim that the Hebrew Bible seeks inspirations from the society that constructed the sculptors and statues of several gods and goddesses and worshipped them with great religious fervor and spiritual enthusiasm (117). Since Hebrew Bible vehemently lays stress upon the worshipping of One God, the indigenous faiths of ANE do not have any comparison with that followed by the Israelites (88-90). The author has discussed cosmos and universal phenomena (166) in Part IV of his volume. He has described the physical and natural environment and its relationship with humans in a powerful manner in the pretext of the Biblical concept of genesis or creation, and human arrival on the earth in the wake of it. The Old Testament elucidates the creation of heavens and earth in six days, the birth of first humans and their stay in Eden Garden (Genesis 1)1, and their expulsion from their peaceful abode to reside on the face of the earth till the appointed time. Walton experiences the footprints of human arrival in the world in the background of the comparative study of Bible existing at the era when the ANE civilization was at its full swing. This part of his volume reflects the author’s deep insight into primitive cultural studies and research work (180-183). The fifth and the final part of the volume under-examination depicted the social, economic, political and spiritual activities of the people belonging to the ANE, and their perception about the world, its creation, and its connection with the universe (203). This part of the remarkable work serves as an encyclopedia for the researchers and historians alike, which could make sure headway towards the discovery of facts about lifestyle and belief systems of the ancient worlds. The author, while making his conclusion, asserts that although the Hebrew Bible could not be declared as the outcome of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian social environment, yet the Israelites not only learnt many things from the indigenous cultures but also adopted them in their life, which certainly influenced their belief system too to a great extent (313-316); calf worship in the absence of Moses is a solid example of their deviancy from the Jewish religious traditions (Exodus, 32:4)2. PART I: Walton (2006) appears to be exploring the relationship between the norms and values prevailing in ancient civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia with the tales and teachings narrated in Hebrew Bible in his work Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament. The author finds several commonalities between cultural values of these regions and the traditions elucidated in Hebrew Bible in the light of the researches made by the scholars and critics3. The author alludes to the contributions made by the earlier researchers and analysts particularly famous German Assyriologist Friedrich Delitzsch (1850-1922) and others on this subject, where Delitzsch has proved strong association between Babylonian beliefs and rituals and the tales of Hebrew Bible in his lectures with the title Babel and Bible (16). Delitzsch seeks many similarities between the cultural traits of Tigris and Euphrates on the one hand, and the text of Hebrew Bible on the other, which endorses the very misconception that the Old Testament only reflects the attributes of the ancient civilizations, and hence does not maintain divine origin altogether. In addition, Walton is of the view that although the critics appear to be justified in arguing that the Old Testament presents the norms, values, traditions and conventions in an accurate manner that had been in vogue in ancient times in both Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations, and are thus evident proof of declaring Bible as a human product instead of divine in nature and scope, yet sharing similar ideologies cannot endorse the former as the by-product of the latter (30-32)4. Such a unique thoughtfulness not only impressed the German critics of Delitzsch’s contemporary times, but also laid indelible impacts on the minds of scholars, critics, students and general public, who started taking the Bible mere the representative of the customs, conventions and traditions of two important civilizations of ancient era (18). On the basis of the same facts, the critics regard Judaism and Christianity as the religions of human origin, which mistakenly view the tales of Old and New Testaments as divine revelations. However, such inappropriate arguments made by the critics of Bible divinity, Walton asserts, are actually the outcome of their aversion for the Semitic cultures on the one hand, and their love and dedication for their indigenous (German) cultural values on the other. Hence, Delitzsch’s views of declaring Old Testament as the volume containing social norms and cultural characteristics of ancient civilizations is actually the outcome of his prejudice for the non-German languages and cultures (22). Although Walton has included highly controversial works challenging the divinity of Hebrew Bible, yet he does not confine his volume to the elaboration of most unfavorable comments against the Old Testament. Rather, the book signifies the arguments made by neutral researchers including Hallo & Simpson (1997)5, and others, in a balanced manner drawing out both similarities and differences between the cultural features of Egypt and Babylonia on one side, and the teachings of Bible on the other. Hallo & Simpson maintain the similarities between the literature of both the civilizations and Biblical tales as mere a coincidence and the outcome of the existence of faith and culture in one and the same environment.6 Furthermore, Walton has also adopted a powerful methodology, in the light of which he submits to state that since wide-ranged uniformity in ideas, norms and cultural features is not possible altogether in any region of the globe, so how could the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia share the same traits and rituals depicted in the Old Testament (25). Consequently, lessons of the Bible could not be asserted as mere the extraction from the social milieu of their contemporary times. Since all European states, united in the bond of one single European Union, even then they do not share one and the same socio-cultural attributes; so how ancient civilizations shared the same during the time when communication and travelling were very slow, and it took months to reach from one region to the other. Additionally, it seldom happens that a nation completely merges into the other while living with the other communities or nations by surrendering its very identity and experiencing complete elimination. For instance, the Jews co-existed with Christians, Muslims and the people of other faiths in various parts of the globe for centuries, yet they did never surrender their unique ideology and distinguished cult and rituals altogether (Dimont 2003)7. One more thing Walton submits to state i.e. the main issue behind approving or rejecting the notion that whether the Hebrews got any type of inspiration from the neighboring communities because of their continuous interaction with them during their stay in Egypt (30) is this whether they had studied and adopted the pieces of literature of attributed to the indigenous population before or during the revelation of Old Testament. Had the Israelites experienced acculturation with the pagan communities by accepting their religious belief, they would not have any need to lead a life of solitude and humiliation under the Pharaohs of Egypt as their slaves (44). Thus, the author has strived to explore the realities about Hebrew Bible through an in-depth analysis. Part II: Part II of the book under examination makes a comparative analysis of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian mythology with the tales described in Hebrew Bible, where both the myths and Scripture appear to be sharing some stories with slight differences. The work seeks the existence details about the Noah’s Great Deluge in the Epic of Gilgamesh, where the former one describes the wrath of God because of the disobediences committed by the perverts and rebels, and the latter attributes the same as belonging to the polytheism people (44-46). Jacobsen, while depicting the flood myth, alludes to the King of Shuruppak called Ziusudra, the alleged hero of deluge that could be stated to be Noah’s counterpart in Epic of Gilgamesh. The creation of animals and gathering of few humans as Ziusudra’s companions is so much similar in the Epic, as it looks the copy of Jewish Scripture portraying the great catastrophe in an enthralling manner. Similarly, other literary pieces, including Enki and Nimrah, Innana’s Descent, Song of the Hoe, Sumerian creation and several other stories vehemently concentrate upon divinity like the Biblical tales (47-48), where the characters certainly maintain supernatural or metaphysical powers while combating with the representatives of evil; it is therefore, the pagan myth and Jewish traditions are mistakenly viewed as sharing one and the same source. The author has also included the tales and fables representing the ancient Akkadian culture including Enuma Elish, Erra and Ishum and many others; each of these stories portray a parallel to different Biblical heroes not only in character; but also in valor, gallant deeds, generosity, dauntlessness and modesty too to some extent. These fables encompass various locations and regions the heroes had come across during their risky adventures and long expeditions in order to protect their nations from calamities, monsters and rival forces. Walton (49-50) also elucidates the gallant deeds associated with the Sumerian kings of ancient times depicted in the ancient literature, which are aptly compared to the battles fought by the Biblical personalities including Jacob, Joshua, Kind David and other important figures of Israelite tribes. Surprisingly, all these tales pointed out to the incidents took place at or around Tigris and Euphrates, the birthplaces and dwelling cities of the holy personalities of Holy Bible; consequently, the latter generations and critics considered these cultural and spiritual personalities one and the same (53). In addition, the destruction of different nations, portrayed in the Akkadian literature also resembles the destruction of the nation of Lot for their indulgence in sinful acts against the commandments issued by the Lord, according to the Old Testament. Consequently, literary developments made by the people of ANE reflected the theme and conveyed the message reiterated in the Hebrew Scripture. The same is the case with various royal dynasty of Egypt, the kings, pharaohs and other legendry figures made valuable contributions for their respected nations, and hence earned perpetual fame and respect in the eyes of the members of their communities because of putting their personal life and security into grave jeopardy just for the sake of the fellow individuals. Moreover, Walton has decorated his volume with the several more literary pieces of the ANE in order to justify the claims of similarities observed between the cultural and religious literatures. He has discussed the myths including Adapa, Birth Legend of Sargon, Cuthean Legend of Naram-Sin, Sinuhe, Wenamun and others in order to reveal the nature and topics of the literature had been in vogue in ANE societies (54-56). In addition, Shurpu, Maqlu, Anuma, Anu Enlil and others reflect the tales of divine incarnation into humans in details that endorse the divinity of Jesus Christ and his arrival on the earth as human being (61). Walton also refers to the letters and other documents, particularly Hymn to Enlil (72) that resembles with the Songs of Solomon and Holy Gospel in theme. In addition, the Plague Account demonstrated in the Hittite literature (74) portrays the picture that is similar to the misery of the Egyptians when the Pharaoh’s nation was inflicted with the same fate because of their cruelties and high-handedness towards the Israelites. PART III: Part III of the book under consideration has provided a detailed account of the gods, goddesses and kings, warriors and legends worshipped in the ANE societies. This is one of the most significant parts of the volume, which separates the Hebrew belief system from the faiths followed by the pluralists and pagans belonging to Hittite, Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations. Walton has elaborated the Yahweh’s council (95) in the light of the Hebrew Bible, which reveals the myths of Abrahamic faiths including the description of angels, heaven, hell, reward, punishment and the sacred personalities belonging to Jewish and Christian faiths. Similarly, he has also depicted the Egyptian gods particularly Ra and Amun, the idols of which were worshipped by the people, as they took them the metaphysical beings that would arrive for their rescue at any hour of the need. Amon was the god of creation, which had stopped working after the creation of the world; while Anubis was responsible for the life and protection of the Egyptians. Similarly, they attributed Bes as god of war and music, while Hapi and Khensu were the gods of Nile and moon respectively(102). Min was the god of fertility and reproduction, according to them, and Osiris represented vegetation and earth in their mythology. Since all the gods and goddesses performed their powers and abilities independently, no one of them had any concern with the other. Hence, no god or goddess had any fear regarding the interference of others into his/her maters altogether. Similarly, Mesopotamian religions existing in Samarian, Akkadian and Babylonian cultures worshipped separate gods and goddesses in the light of the powers they possessed. It is therefore, the Mesopotamians also contained belief in many gods according to their faith. The main gods and goddesses include Adad, Amurru, Anu, Anzu, Apkallu (including fish, griffin and human), Ei, Ellil and several others, containing the powers and departments quite divergent to one another. Hambaba, Pazuzu and Dumuzi are the most influential ones among the long list of gods and goddesses (107-112). Somehow, the Hebrew Bible clearly commands the followers to worship one God (Leviticus, 18-19), instead of the plurality of deities. The Abrahamic Scriptures, including Old Testament, Gospel and New Testament, seek all powers in one God, though the Christian declare Jesus Christ as deity incarnated. Nevertheless, the Jews refute any possibility of incarnation of God, and there are the examples of the arrival of angels and Satan in human form at different occasions. It is therefore, Jewish community discards the possibility of extracting tales from the ANE literature in order to include them as the part of their Scripture. Since the concept of foreign gods and other supernatural elements of this kind was certainly an issue absolutely unacceptable for the Hebrew people, there could be no question of seeking inspirations from the mythology belonging to some external and inferior community for the superior Israelites, the beloved nation of the Creator (108). Hence, the author appears to be successfully defending the divine nature of the Hebrew Bible (119). While describing about the temples belonging to the ANE people, Walton submits to state that the pagans of Mesopotamia and Egypt had built the statues of their gods and goddesses in different sizes and postures (122). The huge size of the statues expressed the grandeur and might of some most distinguished deities. On the other hand, the Jewish communities had established synagogues, where they used to pray and meditate instead of going to local temples and other religious places belonged to the pagan communities (125). PART IV: Part IV of the book is rightly stated to be the most informative part of Walton’s book, which draws out the vast universal phenomena and its relationship with human beings. The author has explained in a comprehensive way the history and nature of deities being worshipped by the ANE people. In addition, the author has also described the relationship of these gods with humans. Hence, Walton has investigated into the ontology of religion and deity in fourth part of the work. Since human thoughtfulness always appears to be in search of exploring the secrets of the universe, the author has successfully portrayed the human efforts towards this direction during the ancient era by paying special concentration upon the association of the then religious and ethnic cultures and communities with the supernatural powers of the universe. The author argues that the pagan’s relationship with the cosmos and their learning process, including education, domestic and social life, financial activities and other matters were dependent of the (false) beliefs, omens, misconceptions and traditions that they had been following for perhaps centuries. On the other hand, the Jewish relationship with the universe entirely based upon the evident revelations sent from Almighty Lord in the form of Holy Scriptures and the holy men, who communicated with the Israelites the word of god, and man’s place in the universe. Since it is the tradition of humans that they aptly regarded themselves in confrontation with the unconquerable forces of nature, they start seeking support from the celestial bodies including sun, moon, stars, air and thunder etc on the one hand, and the powerful elements like fire, water, mud, demons, monsters and kings etc on the other. It is therefore the Mesopotamians and Egyptian had started worshipping different gods in order to escape from calamities, disasters, floods and famines, as well as from the beasts, cruel rulers, infertility, poverty and food crises and other problems insurmountable for the feeble humans (219). Since the gods were immanent in nature, they too shared these same harsh attributes. In order to pacify their anger, the pagans used to sacrifice their animals and even family members for the purported collective prosperity. The pagans sought their support in order to get rid of the problems they underwent in one way or the other. Somehow, the Jews did not get involved into calling these gods for seeking their help. Instead, they only called the God of Abraham, or the God of Moses and Aaron for the removal of their difficulties, and even getting free from the cruel clutches of the Pharaoh’s slavery. Thus, neither pagans believed in one God, nor the Hebrews declared the pagan gods as their deities. It is therefore, the Jews sustained their unique religious, social, cultural and spiritual identity, instead of adopting the ways or mythology attributed to the pagan civilizations. PART V: Part V is the lengthiest part of Walton’s book, in which the author has explored the lifestyle and activities of the people of ancient near east, and their view about the communities other than their own. The author has defined how every individual of ANE civilization was conscious about his personal gains, and was interested in the growth, progress and prosperity of his family (313); it is therefore, they considered every way to get prosperous without taking the lot and loss of others into any consideration (315). Such type of selfishness and cruelty of nature used to invoke conflicts and chaos, turning the region into battlefield. The author demonstrates the grave concerns of the ANE people regarding the uncertainty of their future life; as it was actually the same anxiety and concern that dragged them into the race for obtaining maximum benefits and advantages out of the problems of others. Since the pagans did not have belief in reincarnation in the manner ascribed to the followers of Abrahamic faith, so they did not display any repentance or remorse over the atrocities and injustices they committed on others. Somehow, the Hebrew people were exceptional case due to the reason that they were in wait of the promised Messiah, who would bring worldly and eternal peace, tranquility and bliss to their life eventually (324-325). Additionally, they also have strong faith in the notion that they would experience a life after death, where they would have to be responsible to their Lord for the deeds and misdeeds they committed during their life on the earth (326). Moreover, the author also seeks the presence of ghosts in the pagan myth, which used to be different from one another in nature and acts. However, the Jews had belief in angels and satanic forces, though they did not deny the existence of demons and monsters in various forms, which could terrorize and even harm the weak people through their appearance and evil acts. The chapters in this part depict that the ANE people were somewhat prejudiced regarding their spiritual beliefs and culture, and looked down upon others with colored spectacles. Actually all cultures demonstrate the very reality that people belonging to every civilization regard themselves as superior to all, while consider others as inferior ones; the same is applied to ANE people, who declared the Jews as perverts that did not worship the gods they do, and did not observe the rituals followed by themselves. The same prejudice was also in vogue among the Hebrew people, who also considered themselves as superior because of their misconception that the Israelites were the chosen seed, and was spiritual leader of the world at large. It was actually their prejudice and abhorrence for the external communities that they regarded adopting other faith as a token of humiliation and degradation on their part. POST SCRIPT: In the post script of the book under consideration, the author has pointed out towards the very fact that generalizations could turn out to be misleading in one way or the other (331), provided they are not gathered and applied in a careful manner. Furthermore, he has elucidated the extreme cares and cautions applied by him in order to escape mistakes and errors while collecting the data. He has also discussed his neutrality and impartiality while conducting the research (332). He has also sought the views and support of the literature and manuscript experts as a precautionary measure in this regards. Since the pagans and Hebrews experienced cognitive development under one and the same environment, their emergence as cohabiters of one and the same social environment could have introduced many commonalities in their activities and thoughtfulness. In addition, though the Hebrews would have not included the pagan mythology in their Scripture, yet the influence of those myths on Hebrews could not be denied at any cost (333). Walton has demonstrated his limitations, happening of that is quite natural during conducting the research on a civilization only few remnants of which are available in the contemporary era. The main difference between mythologies belonging to both the civilizations is Ontology, according to the author. Israelites believed that Almighty God was regulating all the affairs of the universe from the high Heavens, while the ANE myth stated that it was their gods that controlled and administered their life while living in their culture in the form of humans incarnated. Similarly Epistemology of both the myths is also divergent, where the Bible contained the Word of God, while the pagan myth was recorded by humans. Conclusion: To conclude, it becomes evident that the author has made hard efforts in revealing the features of the people belonging to the ancient civilizations in an analytic manner while making a thorough and comprehensive comparison with the Hebrew people. The author has consulted archeological records, paintings, sculptures and other relics, including ancient temples and palaces, as well as the manuscripts and available literature on the same topic in order to demonstrate similarities and dissimilarities in the cultural traits ANE pagans and monotheist Hebrews through sufficient pieces of evidences and sound proofs as well. Walton submits to state that though both pagans and Jews lived side by side with one another, and Jews had adopted many ways attributed to the pagans, yet they did not surrender their separate identity from the pagan civilization of ancient near east. However, the author did not mention any alteration committed by the Jews from time to time after its original revelations. Nevertheless, depiction of literary developments, cultural values, social norms, and customs and conventions of the ANE civilization makes it a refined volume for information, knowledge and even for the future researches. The volume depicts the tremendous efforts made by a brilliant researcher in the field of ancient history and theology, which reveals his command over both these subjects. References Diamont, Max I. Jews, God and History NAL Trade 2nd Edition 2003 Hallo, William W., & Simpson, Kelly. The Ancient Near East: A History Holt Rinehart and Winston Publishers, 2nd edition, 1997. Walton, John H. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible Baker Academic USA 2006 Read More