Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament Reflection - Book Report/Review Example

ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN THOUGHT AND THE OLD TESTAMENT REFLECTION By TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 2 CHAPTER 3 3 CHAPTER 4 5 CHAPTER 5 7 CHAPTER 6 9 CHAPTER 7 11 CHAPTER 8 12 CHAPTER 9 14 CHAPTER 10 15 CHAPTER 11 17 CHAPTER 12 19 CHAPTER 13 20 CHAPTER 14 22 POSTSCRIPT 23 WORKS CITED I CHAPTER ONE This chapter puts forth the concept that the comparative study of cultures and their contexts in terms of milieu and geographical position as being important. This is particularly important when studying the Old Testament and its writing by persons who lived in the Ancient Near Eastern milieu. The writer also brings the debate about comparative study and the bias that exists due to the different presuppositions of scholars. Some scholars lean very heavily on the inerrancy of scripture to such an extent that they are unwilling to examine the cultural influences in the writing of scripture. Understanding the culture and the milieu in, which any work was written is a concept that helps to better understand all works literature. Therefore, although the Bible is a holy book, it is necessary to study it like any other work of its time such as is done with the Hammurabi. The contemporary worldview is influenced by globalization and advancement in technology, travel and communication. It therefore needs to understand the world in, which the Old Testament was written in order to better understand the worldview, meaning and message of the books that make it up. Therefore, according to Walton, the studies of the Ancient Near Eastern cultures are important and academic in their own right. For him modern scholars can only understand the Old Testament by studying the ancient world of the Ancient Near East and the ancient world in general.             The most important issues for Walton are the study of the literary genres and literature of the Ancient Near East. Though not disputing the importance of the study of borrowing between the writers of the Old Testament he insists that the main issue needs to be on culture, world- views and literary genres. This calls for a better study and understanding of the society, its cultural practices and norms and its pervasiveness in the Ancient Near East. The literary genres serve as a foundation in comparative studies of the Old Testament. A fuller understanding of the Old Testament can only be achieved through knowing the literary genres and the cultural contexts in, which they were written. Walton secondly strongly emphasizes the need for properly understanding religious practices such as rituals, ceremonies, priests, altars, shrines, temples religious objects and places. These are things that the contemporary mind struggles to understand but were a part of ordinary everyday life of the people of Ancient Near East. To Walton as with many other scholars, it is pertinent to understand the Israelite culture, practices and those of their neighbors. This is because the cultures of the Ancient Near East had common origins and similar cultures and practices. Most of the cultures borrowed freely from each other in terms of food, rituals, norms and sometimes-even gods. For this reason, it is very important to understand the cultural contexts of the people of the Ancient Near East as well as the gods they worshiped in order to better interpret biblical texts of the Old Testament (OT) and other literature of that milieu. The author concludes the first chapter by pointing out the benefits of comparative studies in the area of aiding the better study of the Biblical texts. He points out at least four broad major areas: (a) history of the Ancient Near East, (b) archeological findings and interpretations of societies of the Ancient Near East, (c) Ancient Near East literature, and (d) languages as spoken in the Ancient Near East.1 CHAPTER TWO      In the second chapter, the author brings to the attention of the reader the different methods that are currently in use in current Old Testament scholarship. He first deals with the way comparative studies are applied in critical scholarship. This is because many long held presuppositions about the Ancient Near East are increasingly being challenged as new and more relevant data and discoveries are made in related areas of academia. The assumptions of evolution, which have influenced the understanding of texts and thoughts, are coming under heavy reconsideration in light of new discoveries. It is becoming increasingly unsustainable to claim that critical thought and religious practice had simple beginnings, which evolved through time. This is because of many archeological findings that have proven that thought processes were more complex through architectural designs. For example, some very simple idols being housed in very complex buildings with artifacts that definitely required a high intelligence level, which, therefore, rules out evolution. Recent research has challenged the accuracy of assumptions in reaction criticism, source criticism and dating. This has resulted in a closer examination and study of new data even by those who would not normally be accepting of comparative studies within the circles of critical scholarship. Walton is however a bit critical of the use of comparative studies in the area of polemics but only because he feels that it is not being used in a more academic manner. Walton is also critical of evangelicals and other hard-line conservatives due to their resistance in accepting comparative studies. He labels them as "confessional scholars".2 This according to Walton is caused by their fear that scripture may be reduced in status to that of any other religious text. This would greatly shake and affect the long held beliefs of the Bible as a supernaturally inspired book. It would also have the effect of emphasizing the part of the writers of the Old Testament as creatures of their time, which would reduce the bible to a creation of men.      The author offers a solution to all this be proposing an integrated approach that includes unbiased and educated defense of biblical texts, critical analysis and solid analysis of texts with their contexts. Walton argues for serious consideration of the field of comparative studies in understanding the bible. CHAPTERTHREE In this chapter, the author takes the reader through an overview of Ancient near East literary styles as well as examples from the primary groups. These examples serve to better enhance the understanding of the use of literature and its interpretation within each people group. It also serves to show similarities and differences within the people groups. Myths were a very common part of the everyday life of the ancient world. They were used in many ancient civilizations as a way of understanding their present reality. Passed down through generations, myths helped to bridge the knowledge gap between generations. The author gives short accounts of myths form several cultural groups in this chapter. He draws parallels from some of these myths with biblical stories such as the flood in Genesis and creation account and the flood. Other stories are very different in themes and accounts to biblical stories, in that they speak of many gods such as the fighting gods of Akkadian mythology. Ritual texts expounded the ritual procedures of a people group and were generally used by spiritual mediators or priests when interacting with their deities. Then there was literature that recorded the epic tales of kings and people of valor inside and outside their lands. These were tales of power struggles, love, battle, politics, sickness, health, fame and even family life, and even death experiences. People from the Ancient East were obsessed with the mystical and it was common to find incantation, divination spells as well as omens, spells to ward off evil and bad spirits. Letters between kings, officials and other important persons such as army generals were of importance and contained valuable information that proves useful in helping contemporary scholars understand the cultural context of people living in the Ancient era.      The writer makes special mention of royal inscriptions ordered by kings as records of real events; however, it is crucial to note that a king would sometimes order inscriptions of what he deemed right. In light of this, it is clear that other literature was used to verify the true scenario of the events. Chronicles and manuals were common in all the kingdoms as they were the accurate recordings of rulers in a kingdom. These are also great sources of information in tracing great events such as battles, occupations and interactions with other kingdoms such as treaties. Legal documents in the form of decrees from rulers, codes of conduct in family and society also give an important understanding of Ancient near East society.       The temples, shrines and other religious places yielded religious literature, which defined the religion of a people. Gods of the Ancient Near East were primarily adored through hymns, psalms and incantations. Prophetic utterances were recorded, as were other religious rituals. The author infers that it is incumbent upon modern scholars to consider all these factors if they hope to understand better the Old Testament. CHAPTER 4      This chapter deals gives an overview of the forms of Ancient Near Eastern religions. It is the view of the author that in order to understand better the religion of the Israelites then one must also understand the religion of her neighbors by comparing and contrasting them. Other people groups and their kingdoms were compared with Israel. All of these people were polytheistic since to them different gods served a different function and a purpose in the everyday life of the believer and even the kingdom.They therefore found the monotheistic God of Israel odd. In addition, the other polytheistic religions could not fathom that the Israelites’ monotheistic God was transcendent and had dominion over his creation. The Ancient Near East polytheistic cultures believed in gods that interacted directly with their creation to the point that some had children by them. This applied for both female and male gods who had children with humans to produce Demi-gods who were half-human and half- god. The Israelite God was not created but created all things. The Israelite God differed from her neighbors’ gods, as the latter were a creation of man, and further represented an element of creation. For example, the sea god was the sea as the sun god the sun. The only battle that took place in heaven according to the Israelite account was between the archangel Michael, his armies, Satan, and his angel followers. At no point was the God of Israel involved in a battle. In contrast, the other nations had gods who fought in battles both with one another and with humans. These gods also came to be but had previously never existed; meaning that they were not eternal. These gods sometimes put their rivalry and jealousies aside in order to work together on different quests especially where they felt like their deity or reputations as gods was under threat. Similar to this, is the Bible’s mention of a council that God consults in heaven; however, it is important to note that the council does not comprise of other gods but subjects of God. According to the author, this is no fallacious, blasphemous account, as the information is contained in the book of Job in the Old Testament whereby Satan has a discussion with God about Job. However, that conversation only asserts the fact that even Satan is still under God’s rule, power and authority. The God of the Israelites operated outside the cosmos while the other gods of her neighbors did so within it. Yahweh the God of the Israelites claimed creatorship over all that existed in the universe. The gods of her neighbors only claimed individual creatorship of certain aspects of creation while some only claimed transformation of existing elements to their present forms. Yahweh of the Israelites had some common attributes with humans such as love, mercy, grace and even hate. He was also an emotional being with feelings, the ability to communicate and personhood. Yahweh was spirit for all time and never took on human form unlike the other gods who could take on human form at will. Yahweh was never failing while these other gods failed. The God of the Israelites was perfect in his character and attributes. The other gods were known for their imperfections and shortcomings, which were identical to their human subjects. In fact, the only difference between the gods of the Ancient Near East and their worshippers was deity and power. There were no inherent attributes in them, or as Walton says, "deity is as deity does."3 The duties that each god had were the attributes that they carried.  CHAPTER 5      The gods of the Ancient Near East were believed to inhabit the idols in the temples built for them. It was believed that they personally through their earthly representatives dictated their wishes. The temple served as a residence of the god for, which it was built and was therefore a sacred place. It was for such reasons that Old Testament prophets spoke vehemently against such places, which were normally built in exalted areas such as mountains and hills. The temples were built with staircases, which symbolized an entry point for the god into the earth. The writer relates this to the Babel account and suggests that what brought offence was the symbolic portal built for the god and not an actual building that could reach heaven. The temple was the center of every society in ancient cultures who were obsessed with the mystical. The writer further suggests that Eden was not a real geographic place on earth but a place in the cosmos where God dwelt. This made temples centers of law, worship, wealth and all social activities. It was therefore not unique for Yahweh to inhabit the tabernacle and later the temple built for him. Here the mythology of the Ancient Near East agrees with the Bible. Sacrificial offerings were common to all religions in this milieu. Across different accounts in the OT, it is clear that sacrifices were a crucial element in worshipping God. The author puts emphasis on the fact that Yahweh demanded faith and allegiance but the other gods simply demanded appeasement through sacrificial offering. CHAPTER SIX       This chapter gives an overview of the practice of religion by the state and by individuals. The practice of religion was much more defined in the city due to the proximity of temples, which were the most prominent feature and center of importance. Idols had to be washed, fed, put to sleep and pampered just as would be done to the nobility of their times. Gods as well as their idols were passed down the generational lines. The relationship with these gods was impersonal in nature. The worshipper did their part and hoped that the gods would be favorable to them as they were reputed to being very temperamental with the capacity of changing their minds for good or for evil at the a whim. It was all about getting favors and benefits for the worshiper, which was seen by the society as having favor with the gods and resulted in honor. Misfortune in one’s life was looked upon as a bad omen and because of incurring the wrath of the gods, which put the family in bad light in the society. Prayers, sexual orgies and all sorts of actions such as human sacrifices, which would be considered offensive in modern religions, were carried out in order to please the gods in the ancient era. The God of Israel was therefore, considered a puritan by these standards, as such obscenities did not define his existence and worship. CHAPTER SEVEN This chapter examines the worldview of the cosmos. People in this milieu believed that the earth was flat. They also believed in a layered cosmos. The heavens were the top layer, the earth the middle layer and the netherworld was below. They thought of the sky as a solid mass that was supported by gigantic mountains at the furthest edges of the earth and in some understandings giant columns. The waters above were divided by the solid sky and used by the gods to execute their purposes. According to Walton, even the Israelites of those times held the same view of the cosmos. CHAPTER EIGHT       This chapter brings an important understanding of the creation account according to Walton. This is because the Israelites would have held the same beliefs as their contemporaries and so understood the need for function and purpose. Understanding this helps us had better understand the whole recounting of creation and the naming process. Walton sates that this should be understood as God putting order and function into creation things. The temple is a depiction of the cosmos. CHAPTER NINE     The way the people of the Ancient Near East functioned is the focus of this chapter. This is found in how they record their own history and how they described their past. Most importantly how they believed they came into being; their origins. The Israelites had a very unique account of how they came into being that was very distinct from their neighbours. This is because they believed themselves to have originated from two single male and female human beings, which is monogenesis. Her neighbors believed themselves as having come to being as a group, which is polygenesis. The Israelites believed that they were created form the dust/earth and then God breathed life into their human ancestors. Other people groups of the area believed that they originated from other materials such as clay or even dismembered body parts form gods who had been conquered in war by other gods. Some people groups believed that humans were unified completely while others believed that they were made-up of body and spirit while others still body, soul and spirit. The Egyptians called the natural character of a person “Ka”, while “Ba” was their reputation and “Akh” was the soul/spirit that lived in the body and was eternal. The Israelites called the state of aliveness/ awareness “Nephesh” and the spirit. Vitality of life “Ruah"4       The role of humans in the cosmos differed according to the people group they came from. The Egyptians believed that the gods were the center of the universe and that humans were a byproduct of their activities. The Israelites believed that they were created to serve God. CHAPTER 10       The milieu of the Acient Near East is one that is god-centered, which is quite the opposite in the contemporary world where experience and scientific proof is the center of life. Natural proof or facts were not important as myth or beliefs. The gods were center of history and therefore history was recorded in such a way that reflected their supremacy.  Every happenstance was attributed to the will and interaction of the gods with the universe, and these were historically recorded as such. Events, persons and other forces were only toys in the hands of the gods who played them at their will. They therefore did not think of them as being linear but in more cyclical ways.           Narratives of this era were mainly fictional in nature and were meant to depict a certain outcome of the activity of their gods. As such, they need to be understood by deciphering the message then the intended audience in order to get the correct message of the narrative. CHAPTER ELEVEN       The interactions with the gods took place through divination. It could be inductive through a human messenger or deductive through natural elements. The center of divination was to find out the will of the gods. Kingdoms had diviners, dream interpreters, and magicians who served in their employ with their main role being the interpretation of the will of the gods. Rather than perfect prediction of the future, divination should be understood more along the lines of, “drawing a particular issue to ones attention.”5 CHAPTER TWELVE       The city life was the desired type of living for Ancient near East people. This was because cities were considered as created by the gods even before human life came to be. The cities were also the centers of political activity. Living outside the city or a nomad was seen us unseemly and was frowned upon. Each city had its own god and its inhabitants were its subjects. The Israelites had the same concept with Jerusalem housing the temple of God. Israel had one God and one temple while her neighbors had multiple gods in every city, with these gods serving as the patron. The kings were charges of their god’s wand so they went to great lengths to seek their approval. They meted justice, administered and even conquered on their god’s behalf. CHAPTER THIRTEEN       This chapter focuses on administration within the kingdom with authority flowing from the gods. Israel was no exception as its administration was based on the Ten Commandments, which were given by God. The Levitical and Deutronomical laws guided their lives and all matters of justice and equity. The other Ancient Near East kingdoms were guided by the king’s law, which was believed to be divine since the kings were chosen by the gods. Diviners, enchanters, healers, seers and those who practiced the mystical arts wrote abundant literature that was passed down and, used by subsequent generations for posterity. Israel was originally a theocracy where God ruled through the prophets until they asked to have a king like their neighbors. CHAPTER FOURTEEN     The family lineage and well-being was top on the agenda of the people of the Ancient Near East. The afterlife and the future were too distant and were thought of in terms of the present life. This made them give great importance to having an heir who could continue the worship of the gods and carry on the family lineage. The Egyptians believed that the dead could live on as they normally would in real life if they the right process was followed in the burial and entombment. There was continuation of the living and the dead and libations, statements of honoring them were part of life. Death was thought of as a transition to the ancestors, which was a good thing. The afterlife was not thought of as a place of punishment or torture. POSTSCRIPT      In conclusion the writer reminds the reader of the importance of comparative studies and its contribution to a better understanding the of Old Testament.  He ends the text by warning that:   "guard against a facile or uninformed imposition of our own cognitive environment on the texts of ancient Israel, which is all too typical in confessional circles."5   Work cited Walton, John H. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006. Read More