Analysis of Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament by Walton John - Book Report/Review Example

 Book summary: Ancient Near East Thought and The Old Testament Table of Contents Table of Contents i Part 1 Comparative Studies 1 History and Methods 1 Comparative Studies, Scholarship, and Theology 2 Part 2 – The Ancient Near East Literature 3 Summary of the Literature of the Ancient Near East 3 Part 3 Religion 4 4 The Gods 4 5 Temples and Rituals 5 6 States and Family Religion 6 Part 4 Cosmos 7 7. Cosmic Geography 7 8. Cosmology and Cosmogony 8 Part 5 People 9 9. Understanding the past: human origins and role 9 10. Understanding the past: Histography 10 11. Encountering the Present: Guidance for life – divination and omens 11 12. Encountering the present: Context of life, cities, and kingship 12 13. Encountering the Present: Guidelines for Life – Law and Wisdom 13 14. Pondering the future of earth and after death 14 Postscript 15 Bibliography 16 Part 1 Comparative Studies This section consists of two major topics, namely history and methods, and comparative studies, scholarship and theology, which are discussed below: History and Methods From the perspective of history, the most challenging claim is that the writings of the Bible relied on the dominant culture’s written works. The dominant cultures included the Euphrates and Tigris regions. It is evident from the Mesopotamian proof that is similar to ideas and customs of the Old Testament where original verification of their source is available.1 On this ground, the Bible is seen as a document that was generated by people and not inspired by the Holy Spirit (divine). In addition, the Christian faith is based on pagan legends. From this approach, individuals view the Bible from two perspectives. There are those who look at it from the secular or scientific view; that feel that the Bible emerged late in the world of literature. In addition, the secular stand is that the Bible adopted the tales of the ancient Near East. The other point of view is confessional where Assyriology is employed in religious doctrine. The methodology of a comparative study is utilized to understand the culture of the ancient Near East that was in common and how it influenced the Old Testament. One of the aspects that an individual considers in comparative studies is the language and literature of ancient Near East. For instance, the Israelite literature reveals the culture of the Israelites as well as the entire culture of ancient Near East.2 In addition, the comparative studies assisted in comprehending the background religious activities that the biblical excellence is differentiated. For example, the biblical concept is no use of idols (aniconic); therefore, the review of religious iconography provides insight to things like the Ark of the Covenant.3Comparative study is critical in theology. It helps to understand the role of rituals conducted by the Israelites and their function in theology. One is left wondering “is the Old Testament a history of the ancient Near East or a divine explanation of events in the past?” Comparative Studies, Scholarship, and Theology In order to find a solution to the dilemma of the Old Testament, it is critical to utilize the comparative study tools. A comparative study is a device that is utilized in both confessional and scientific studies. The comparative study describes critical scholarship through the order of evolutionary theory. 4The Bible evolutionary concepts originated from a condition where they could not be trialed against the practical information. The interpretation of language, printing of texts, the succession of key source material and finding of the ancient Near East paved the way for theory testing. 5 Some results of the comparative studies were unsustainable. For instance, religious concepts that were believed to have emerged late were proven to be available early. In addition, texts were proven to be unified in advance. It confirmed that the comparative study can provoke theories that are acceptable in critical groups.6On the other hand, comparative study is not adapted by confessional scholarship. It is because the confessional scholars are defensive about traditional and cherished belief of the biblical writings. In addition, the confessional scholars view some elements of comparative study as well as critical scholarship as unacceptable.7For confessional scholars, the Old Testament is a record that reveals the will of God on people that is in record through historic events. In conclusion, the comparative studies serve as the exegesis of the biblical writings, critical analysis and defense of the biblical words.8 From the aspect of the defense of Biblical writings, the confessional scholars play a major role in identifying the significance of balanced and careful use of information that originates from cultural education. The Biblical text is has roots on ancient Near Eastern beliefs, ideas and concepts that explain the exegesis that is important to comprehend the meaning of the writings. Having read through part one, it is correct to view the Old Testament as a book that is divinely inspired, which, employs the ancient Near Eastern concepts for people to understand its meaning. Part 2 – The Ancient Near East Literature Summary of the Literature of the Ancient Near East The chapter begins with the explanation of myths in distinct ways. It defines myths as a tale where the gods are the main subject. In addition, the chapter looks at the ancient Near East writings of different cultures. The texts reveal the ruling of various kings and can determine the accurate period that events occurred in history. In addition, the writings also disclose various rituals performed by people and their New Year’s festivals in the ancient Near East. The chapter also discusses texts on incantations carried out by some cultures to protect them from dangers such as monstrous births, snakes, fungi, and ants.9 Divination writings exhibit how the ancient Near East cultures obtained answers to oracles. In most cases, King’s advisors utilized incantations to safeguard against evil or expulse it. 10The letters of the ancient Near East disclosed information about international correspondence and internal memos between kings. In addition, the letters recount all the activities and events that took place in the history of ancient Near East. For example, the letter describing the siege of Jerusalem in 701, the Assyrian king says that after capturing forty-six fortified cities, he ordered Hezekiah to be put in prison like a caged bird.11In addition, the letters tell about military victories over Israel and building operations of kings that were against the Israelites. The letters also described the gods and how they guided the kings to attain victory just like the Bible tells of God guiding Israel kings. All in all, the chapter reflects on the royal texts that were found in archives that surfaced from the excavation of temples and palaces such as plates and stones12. The culture of the ancient Near East is made clear by law collections, treaties, chronicles and legal documents. In addition, prayers and hymns reflect the way of worship of various cultures. Moreover, prophesy, wisdom literature, and fictional autobiography provide more details about the culture and beliefs of the ancient Near East. The reader can connect the Old Testament and the historic events of the ancient Near East, understanding the text from the point of view of the writer. Part 3 Religion 4 The Gods The ancient Near East recognizes the existence of something when it has a role and a name. In ancient Near East, a god had different names according to the role he played in the society. A good example is in the case of Moses and the burning bush where he asked God what name he should call him.13It is an indication that God in Israel was given distinct titles according to event and purpose. The multiple names indicate the authority and position of the deity. The ancient Near East embraced polytheistic religions where gods had an imaginary range of functions, names, and cultural competencies. Different gods came into being through various methods. For instance, the mythology of Egypt suggests that the gods originated from somewhere. The Egyptians believed that gods originated from previous generation of a deity or through actions such as sneezing, spitting and bodily fluids. These gods are born according to roles and functions because it is in associates with the source of a natural experience. The biblical concept shows Yahweh as the only God worshiped in Israel. He was the giver of life and any other god was inferior. In addition, the gods possessed divine aspects and were responsible for giving wisdom that connects to power. Some gods delivered justice that in some events the judgments were not correct14. In conclusion, in the context of ancient Near East there are no false gods implying that all gods are real. It is therefore correct to declare that there exists no false belief. From a biblical perspective Yahweh is the only God; therefore, any other beliefs and gods are false. 5 Temples and Rituals The temples were constructed to give residence to gods. They were not for the purpose of worship. The temples acted as a figure of heavenly home and were a connection to heaven. In most cases, the temples had a visible mark of a god. The rituals played a role of appeasing the god to approve the sculpture put on the walls of the temple. In addition, the rituals invited the spiritual realm into the physical universe. One ritual that was very important is mouth washing. It was carried out so that the idol could smell incense, drink and eat, as well as collect worship. It was a process of purification where the sculpture cleansed from all the contamination it received in the procedure of manufacturing by the human. In the temples, there was a sacred place where the god could select the position. The temple was a formal place for a few, and not everyone was allowed to enter or see through it. The ancient Near East temple resembled each other in three aspects that are a ziggurat, different chambers, and a garden. The ziggurat was a holy area that was not accessed or used for anything impure.15 In Israel, the role of the temple was initiated by God, which, comprised of bringing deliverance in times of a war, judgment, and intervention in times of environmental calamities. In times of Zechariah the functions of the temple enlarged to include a safeguard of people in the event of broken city walls, deliverance from adversaries and the ground for divine activities in the whole world. In conclusion, the temple was a place that maintained order in the society. The temples had appointed service men that ensured that the gods are fed. The gods were fed through offerings and sacrifices that were performed in a ritual process. 6 States and Family Religion In the ancient Near East culture, religion was practiced by both the family and the state. It is evident from the information found in temples and palaces that signify ‘state religion’. On the other hand, archives discovered in private homes indicate that religion was practiced on the family level. The people practiced religion in their homes because they did not have access to the gods like the kings and the priests. They felt that the gods did not listen to their prayers and that they did not care about them. On the other hand, the people worshiped the ancestral gods because they thought there was a possibility of them hearing and answering their prayers. In addition, the people had a personal relationship with the ancestral gods because there were no restrictions accessing them. The gods were responsible for a good harvest, health, and prosperity. In times of disaster, the people apologized to the gods and tried to please them. The gods were pleased through gifts, offerings, and good actions. The challenge was that these gods did not talk or have a way of communicating to the people. Therefore, no one could tell the reason the gods were unhappy or how to please them. The state religion was different because the people did not satisfy the needs of the gods. The kings and the priests took the role of serving the gods. The gods were given the same attention as a king that was a tradition practiced in the ancient Near East.16 To sum this up, the Israelites had a different culture that was directed by the Ten Commandments. The Ten Commandments comprised of the directive that they should not have any other god beside Yahweh nor should they make a graven image to worship. From this perspective, the Israelites were forced to worship only one God, who listened and answered their prayers. Part 4 Cosmos 7. Cosmic Geography The cosmos geography describes how people perceive the framework and shape of the world they live. It deals with the background culture about what people believe in regard to their environment. The ancient Near East people were of the view that the heavens were the place where the gods lived. There were various degrees of heavens on the basis of rank within the pantheon. The people believed that there were three levels of the physical world. The sky where the gods lived, the earth where the humans stayed and the underworld was the place where the dead lived. The heavens and the earth separate by the sky and the mountains support the sky to stand. They believed that the waters above were safeguarded by the sky and flooded when the sky opened. The sun was the foundation of heat and not light. The moon assisted the ancient Near East to develop the lunar calendar and cycles. The Egyptians and the Mesopotamia contemplated the earth to be a flat disk that is clear on the Egyptian’s sarcophagus and the Babylonian world map.17 All in all, the sun went down to Netherworld when it was not giving heat during the day. According to the Egyptians, the Duat was a subterranean whose entry was from the western skyline and was a home to many gods. The Mesopotamia believed that people entered the netherworld through the grave that made burial ceremony critical. In other cultures like Gilgamesh presumed that one had to go through the seven gates to get to the netherworld. The Old Testament writes about the cosmos geography that is similar to the polytheist cultures. The Bible recognized the sky, land, and underworld. It is through this argument that the dominance of the Old Testament is questionable. 8. Cosmology and Cosmogony The ancient Near East culture was more concerned with the function more than material. The polytheistic culture considered the association of cosmos and the continuity of nature, humanity, and deity. These parts incorporate with each other to create order in the world. They put more emphasis on the spiritual realities that are beyond them more than the physical things that exist around them. The book of Genesis in the Old Testament records about the creation that was a guide to Israelites. God created everything with a specific role to fulfill. For instance, he created light and named it day and darkness that is night. From this perspective, the function of the two is to develop time. The establishment of seasons brought forth festivals. The function is created and intended for people. The ontology of the ancient Near East is functional that suggest that is something is created it must possess a functional disposition in association to the methodical cosmos. In the book of Genesis 1:2, the world is described as empty and formless.18 From the ancient Near East, the cognitive habitat is seen in Genesis where the Israelites think of existence from the point of function and role in the degree of existence that creation begins. The Israel view God’s creativity operations from the perspective of creating important control aspects and proclaim the future of individuals living in the cosmos. In theogony there is no source of Yahweh and neither does cosmogony rely on theogony and God’s association to manage attributes. It is because Yahweh is considered to be external to the cosmos, and the control aspects cannot survive without him. Part 5 People 9. Understanding the past: human origins and role It is paramount to comprehend the past in order to have an insight of the present. The understanding of the people’s thoughts and habitat is paramount in knowing the past. The ancient Near East texts do not have the creation of human beings like in the Bible. Different cultures have various ways to explain how human beings came into being. Like in Sumerian text people were created from the ground, in the Atrahasis blood and flesh is used and in Egypt clay was utilized. In other cultures such as Enuma Elish, blood is named. In the Atrahasis culture, the mother goddess gives forth to human through divine breath or giving birth. The Old Testament concept is different because divine and material integrate to create a human that is divine breath and dust. The ancient Near East has four characteristics that are similar to each other. They include human being to past and future generations, human to deity, human to created universe and male-female. The source of human relates to the functionality where dust or clay indicates the relation to the land and flesh and blood reveal the relation to the gods.19 The ancient Near East writings and the Old Testament are very different in the composition and make of human being. In the polytheistic culture, the composition of human was determined by what the people believed about the initiation and termination of life. The Old Testament, the human, was determined by the relationship of an individual with God. The explanation and meaning of spirit, body and soul are different in various cultures as well as the purpose why a person exists. For instance, the polytheists believed that human was created to serve the gods whereas the Israelites discovered their value through a relation with God. 10. Understanding the past: Histography The histography is the recording of the past that is done to clarify certain issues and for remembrance. The ancient Near East histography explains how the scribes recorded events. The histography can be seen as a way of reporting beliefs and value systems. The histography texts are in two groups that is chronological and commemorative texts. The commemorative text reports activities associated with a present king and the chronological text involve the occurrences from the lives of past kings. In addition, the commemorative records concentrate on royal inscriptions, annals, and building accounts. On the other hand, chronological texts are a literary style of inscription and include the behavior towards kings. In most cases, the texts emphasized the ruling of a great king while the inferior kings are left out. In addition, the victories of kings were recorded leaving out their failures. The gods are at the center of the texts because they were paramount in the culture of ancient Near East. To understand the writings, one has to look at them from the perspective of the culture of the ancient Near East. It is because the natural calamities integrated in the texts possess a spiritual meaning, and that is why one needs to understand the people’s culture. The histographical literature is valuable in terms of the intended audience, sponsor and the target of people that the text enhances. The histographical literature is consists of polemical, didactic, theological, epic, academic and legitimation history. The groups indicate how the writers obtained the information they considered true and important.20 All in all, the Old Testament is no different from the other ancient Near East documents. Even though God is present in the text, the difficulties and defeats in the history of Israel is not recorded, only their connection with God. 11. Encountering the Present: Guidance for life – divination and omens The lives of the ancient Near East were dominated by religious concepts and religion that could not be differentiated from secular practices. The omens and divination served as the means of communication between the polytheistic people and the gods. Divination is divided into two groups; deductive and inspired. The inspired divination is performed in the divine world, and human are used as intermediaries. The message is received in the arrangement of a trance, dream, and visions. In most cases, the prophets were used to communicate the message received from the gods. People who had the dreams consulted interpreters so as to understand the message. In Israel, Joseph and Daniel were renowned dream interpreters. One thing in common is that both Daniel and Joseph dwelt in polytheistic cultures. The deductive divination is one that is visible and is easy to interpret. In this case, one has to have the knowledge and skills to read signs and symbols. It could be a set of events or one event that could be seen as an omen. The omens were not practical but rather speculative, and methods were designed to group the codes and phenomena. One form of divination that was reliable was extispicy that was conducted by assessing the organs of animal sacrifices. Other kinds of omens and divinations were unprovoked and silent. They included observation of celestial features such as moon, eclipses, and colors. In addition, the behavior of a king such as the family relation, personal conduct, and behavior in gardens, fields and rivers formed unprovoked and passive group of omens and divination.21 Animal and human deformities could also be used to communicate to people. In such an event reference could be done from previous reports of communications. This type of divination was illegal in Israel because of how they looked at God, and the manner in which the divinations were interpreted. 12. Encountering the present: Context of life, cities, and kingship The ancient Near East culture believed that cities were created by the gods for them to dwell in. The kings stood in between the human and divine worlds arbitrating the authority of the gods in the city. The king was supposed to recognize the will of deity and make it possible to implement. The role of a king was to ensure that order was sustained in the cosmos that could influence his kingdom. Trade and commerce took place in the cities as well as they harbored temples where the gods were put. The kings participated in a relationship with the highest god and were in charge of the city. The king was responsible for leading the army, making it possible for construction projects and implementing justice. For instance, in Mesopotamia the king was the chief god and was king over the people. The king transferred god’s power to the kingdom. In Egypt, the pharaoh was considered a god. 22 All in all, the case was different in Israel where Yahweh was the only God. There were no other gods that were recognized to exist in Israel. The Bible examines the current kingship in negative and cautious manner compared to ancient Near East where there is no divine source of a king. 13. Encountering the Present: Guidelines for Life – Law and Wisdom In the ancient Near East treatises were written by kings to bring order to the kingdom. The king could write the treatises under the influence of a god where legal decisions on different cases that happened in the kingdom were recorded. These were the guidelines that the people followed so as to appease the gods of the city. There were six treatises in the ancient Near East that offered a different set of instructive and practical laws. The divinatory, medical and legal treatises were instructions used to teach. The divinatory treatises taught individuals in the profession about predictions through omens. The medical texts taught about the identification of disorders, and the legal documents gave judicial insight. The legal treatises provide the equity that motivates justice and also surpasses it. These verdicts were combined with epilogue and prologue in royal inscriptions as a way of making legitimate a king whose judgment reflect his wisdom.23 In conclusion, the collection of treatises was the source of wisdom for its culture. The judges implementing justice among the people comprehended the treatises because the recorded wisdom originated from god. From the biblical perspective, not much can be seen to be similar to ancient Near East treatises. However, some can be recognized from the books of Deuteronomy, Exodus, and Leviticus. 14. Pondering the future of earth and after death Most cultures in the ancient Near East did not have hope for a better life in the future. The only thing they sought after was a comfortable living habitat to live. In the case of Israel, there was hope for a better life that was incorporated and obtained in a covenant. The Egyptian seemed to be well aware of the life after death and the expectations. It is clear from various texts found on pyramids, coffins and in the book of the Dead. The book of Dead contained information that could help a person to go past the guardians and enter Duat. In addition, the book contains details about the snakes that traveled the road to the netherworld and ways of avoiding them. In addition, the Egyptians performed mummification on dead bodies as a way of preparing it for the next life. In other cultures burial rituals that allowed the dead to come back in earth and exist as a ghost among the family. In some instances, the dead were worshiped as god. Objects were used to provide shelter for the dead and symbolized their presence. The dead were responsible for nightmares that the family members encountered. Some spirits were believed to be homeless and just wandered around.24 All in all, the Israelites’ view about death and life after death is different from ancient Near East. According to Hebrews, ‘sheol’ is a place where dead live. From the biblical point of view, not everyone goes to sheol and is regarded as a bad place for souls. God lives in a different place but has access to sheol. Sheol is not the same as hell because the souls are not punished or judged. Therefore, the Bible is clear about afterlife, unlike the ancient Near East thought. Postscript Most scholars in the discipline of ancient Near East Thought do not accept the comparative studies. The scholars should be commended for their job because of the great resource they provide. The information provided prove that Israel coexisted with polytheistic neighbors whom they shared some commonalities. Because of the similarities, the basic understanding of ancient Near East culture helps an individual to interpret the Old Testament. Some major points that were included in the text are theology, ontology, anthropology, sociology, epistemology, and historiography.25 From the perspective of historiography, the Israel was guided by covenant and not a king. The ancient Near East historiography played the role of legitimating and promoting a king. The anthropology in Israel revealed that human being come from divine activities, and their dignity is as a result of a relationship to god. Theology, on the other hand, disclosed that Israel was distinct from the other ancient Near East cultures because God was one. It shows that God made a covenant with chosen people and that he worked outside the cosmos. The God of Israel has no needs and has communicated in various ways that cannot be compared to other cultures. The sociology is the major forces that directed how life was supposed to be in a society. It is clear in similar customs and traditions that outline daily life. To conclude this discussion, comparative studies provide an opportunity for discovery and discourse of ancient Near East culture and the Old Testament. To some degree, the Old Testament is influenced by the ancient Near East. Nevertheless, comparative studies help to comprehend the uniqueness of Israel. Bibliography Walton, John. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Pub. Group, 2006. Read More