The Underlying Behavior of Human Beings in Their Day to Day Interactions - Literature review Example

Prosocial behavior (Name) (Tutor) (Institutional affiliation) (Date) Task 1: Earlier this year, Brisbane experienced one of the worst floods in its history. After the floods, an army of volunteers turned out to help with the clean-up. Based on theory and research literature, how can we account for this? What factors are likely to have contributed to this helping behavior? Prosocial behavior Introduction Various analysts have conducted comprehensive research on the underlying behavior of human beings in their day to day interactions. From their research, we have a wide knowledge on the theories and facts that relate to the prosocial behaviors amongst the human beings. The study of prosocial behavior incorporates many attributes and themes that explain the need to be in a social group as well as how the social groups are beneficial to individuals in the society. According to Dunbar ,Lycett and Barrett (2006 pp.16) prosocial behavior is a resultant of emotional feelings which are deep-rooted in the parental intuitions. However, various analysts have come up with their different view on this fact. Notable example Wieselquist, Rusbult, Foster and Agnew (1999 pp. 950) in their journal of Personality and Social Psychology that incorporates factors related to motivation, cognition, biological and social processes. This brings to light that the issue of prosocial behavior has to be studied on a multilevel point of view, that incorporates, all the underlying factors towards one’ behavior. Influences that drive a person to behave in a particular way and whether his or her actions benefit others in the society have to put under scrutiny. According to Ashton, Paunonen, Helmes, and Douglas (2008 pp.33) it is evident that numerous factors determine one’s actions and how it is manifested to others. These peculiar processes by individuals have to be studied for us to understand the prosocial behaviors of individuals. This essay will endeavor to tackle the evolutionary basis of the human race to be in a position to provide assistance to people who they are not related even a single bit (Rachal, McCullough and Worthington 1997pp.333) state that prosocial inclinations have advanced as a result of natural selection factors that have a close relationship with interdependence of individuals. Human beings cannot survive as a single entity and have to rely on others to solve their problems in cases of tough predicaments. To attain solutions to a problem, they have to engage the other members of the society who might have ideas that will provide a workable solution to their problems. If they work as a group, the process of engagement resultant from exchanges; amicable agreements are attained. Prosocial behaviors may be linked to psychological aspects like negative effects, devotion and obligations, exculpation, compassion in addition to other collective emotions, norms, group credentials and racism, group size, its stability, and variations in prosocial outlooks. From Batson and Ahmad (2007 pp.30) arguments’, prosocial behavior may be viewed on an evolutionary point of view. Our task will aim to understand the reasons behind the volunteers of the Brisbane floods that has made a name of the worst flood in history. After the floods, an army of volunteers turned out to help with the clean-up yet they were not related to the victims of the flood. We shall account for this behavior on a prosocial angle that basically describes human beings as being social and have a major relationship and interactions unlike animals. Just as Duncan, Batson and Ackerman, Buckley and Birch (2001 pp.300) state we are have a greater connection unlike other mammals like the sharks, hyenas whose relationship does not go beyond mating encounters. For human beings, they say this relationship goes way beyond such engagements. In the essay, we shall also include; altruism theories, evolutionary theories, kin selection- cultural contribution, religion, same personalities -, norms of reciprocity, group selection, individual differences, personality types, gender as determinants of prosocial behavior. Altruism According to Bard (2002 pp.25), altruism deals with the worry of other people’s welfare. In many cultures, altruism has been considered a virtue that all members of the society were required to uphold. This may have a relationship with the religious point of view that incorporated feelings of care of other people’s need. However, it is important to note various cultures and religions have dissimilar points of view on the same but the key word related is eradication of egocentrism among members of the society. Altruism also advocates for provision of help and motivation to other parties other than you despite your relationship. It makes it a moral obligation to all members of the society to help therefore converting them to loyalties of others in the groups they inhabit in the society (Batson, 2007 pp.20), argues that altruism does not wait for a reward either monetary or recognition so all members of the society must have this fact at the back of their minds. This may be summarized as an ethical principle that requires to always be obliged to help and benefit other people with no hope of reward. It should be innate and come out automatically when need for help is required especially in urgent times. It may also be used to members who are egoistic to shun away from the vice as they may also require help fro others when they are in an irreparable situation. In relation to our case study, we are justified to attribute the behavior of the army of volunteers turned out to help with the clean-up after the fatal Brisbane floods to the premise of altruism. They offered help as a result of mere self sacrifice a deviation from a ‘self’ life. They are seen to sacrifice all they have at the expense of their safety, comfortability, which every individual would want to sit back and enjoy to the fullest. They however, have put their egos to the line to simply offer help to a needy person. Just like the theme of altruism states that we should always act to benefit others, these well wishers have proven to be real altruists. Duncan, Batson and Ackerman, Buckley and Birch (2001 pp.299) state that comprehensive altruism takes complete responsibility of others not one’s felicities; these well wishers undoubtedly have basic altruistic values. They may also be regarded to as members and successors of an altruistic generation from their generational selflessness. They consider the victims to be members of the society who have roles that need to be performed and without them then the society would have numerous niches. The evolutionary theory The evolutionary theories are very rich in prosocial content and strengthen the legitimacy of altruism theories and question why human beings portray various social behaviors. Basically the evolutionary approaches complete the analysis of altruism and collaboration of people in the society to offer help. Evolutionarists question why a certain type of behavior has occurred and if that particular form of behavior may have taken place earlier on history or if there is likelihood it may occur again. This is the question of adaptation of human beings to certain environments and situations. Tyler and Smith (2008pp.600) explain that evolution theory tries to find out the ways in which individuals are motivated altruistically to act in a certain manner and whether their actions benefit other people or themselves alone. Their research indicates that empathy drives individuals to act in certain ways that are helpful in times of need. Through the presumption of natural selection, individuals have evolved with time and are in a better position to empathize with other people’s situations and the subsequent generations keep advancing from the same. They engender these empathetic genes to other generations and in turn the virtue of help to the needy are continued. Secondly, this theory according to Kitayama, Crandall and Burnstein (2004 pp.750) resolve the debate of whether empathy may have selfish backgrounds. From this theory we can argue that empathy can only be understood not on an individual perspective but on the genes that particular person has adopted from his family members. From this point of view, it is sensible that to argue that empathy emanates from one’s genes. This is in turn portrayed in the prosocial behavior of the individual. Lastly, this theory argues that altruism is way too beneficial to be ignored. The individual’s psychological make up is designed in such a way that it has mechanisms that that play the role of brakes to the virtue of altruism. Individuals are seen to be in a position to detect swindlers who always attempt to exploit other people’s kindness (Nunney 2005 pp.220). The presence of this mechanism in the human system leads to our endless support on the evolutionary theorem. In our case study we may attribute the help offered by the well wishers of Brisbane flood to this theory. Their desire to help may be as a result of their inborn feelings of empathy to the victims of the floods. We can bolster this argument by attributing our argument to Penner and Dovidio (2001pp 164) who state that this virtue is passed on from generation to generation and does not escape one’s perception about a person since it is generated automatically by the body system. It is also thought that as generations pass, they get better in terms of offering help. This is because the society is changing and new things come up by the day. This army of well-wishers is a product of a generational change and immersion of empathy. Kin selection theory- Individual Discrepancies in Altruism and Prosocial conduct According to Penner and Dovidio (2001pp.163), the Hamilton’s theory of kin selection, indicates that individuals can advance their own future by forgoing many things on behalf of others who have the same blood and genes they have. This model brings to light the thought that people may help, altruistically, those people who are close to them in a better way unlike those who seem distant to them. This theory was brought forward by investigating if the extent to which the costs incurred by the care giver are way less than the benefits of the recipient. This was multiplied by the extent of relationship among the individuals. In the event of emergencies, the degree of altruism tended to escalate in an alarming rate (Nunney 2005 pp.225). A closer check into the model, we can borrow the view that sacrifice is present in our day to day lives. It is noted with a lot of concern that the relationship of individuals decline exceptionally down the nuclear level of the family. Human beings have for a long time been seen to be attached in small groups of people and with time, they regard them to as their family members as a result of the relationship built over the years of stay. In this case therefore, we cannot differentiate who is kin and who is not. We can therefore ague that human beings rely heuristically on kinship members and whether they offer altruistic does not rely fully on the kinship relationship. Kinship may be based on similar views on various topical issues, perceptions, nearness in geographical backgrounds and culture amongst others. Though these features may not satisfy many people’s understanding on kinship, we shall justify ourselves on the evolutionary theorem. In this contemporary era people have been seen to help others who are not related to them, for instance a father who helps a child who is not his, but on the virtue that he married a woman with all that she had. Queller (2001 pp.56) argues that other people are more willing to help people who have the same dialect as theirs though they may not be directly related to them. From a research conducted by Queller (2001 pp.61), similar attitudes by different individuals from different backgrounds elicited feelings, which were much stronger than kinship relationships. The well wishers of Brisbane flood tragedy can arguably be attributed to have offered their help as a result of developed kinship relationship with the affected members. These are people who may have similar views to theirs, spoken the same language, be of the same religion, cultures, or even friends who may have helped them at one point of their lives. Kinship does not necessarily mean a person who is related by blood to you but a person whom you have lived with and have learnt several of their likes and dislikes. Social norms Social exchange is way impossible without the dire contribution of social norms. Dunbar, Lycett and Barrett (2006 pp.89), state that norms regulate the manner in which exchanges between the individual and groupings work. Social norms are credited for their contribution towards to ensuring theta cooperation thrives in the society. Such norms that regulate the societal operation include justice, honesty in the group members. Other analysts have also come up to discuss the need for norms in the society by arguing that for a long time they have instilled teamwork and coordination among individuals especially in times of need for instance offering help to accident victims maybe in terms of donating blood or giving them a ride to the hospital. If these norms did not exist, then the society would be an unjust place to live in with the rich harassing the poor, the well fed despising the hungry among other unfair instances. Malfunction of these norms would create a situation whereby anger and revenge would have a fertile ground to thrive, blame on others would be the order of the day, rant and rave as well as constant fuzzy. The well wishers of Brisbane flood tragedy can arguably be attributed to have offered their help as a result of their learning of the societal norms and implications of failure to provide them when need be. Perhaps the ones who were affected by the floods would feel neglected if no one came to their help. A number of them would result into feelings of denial and despair just by the thought of no one cares about their feelings and worries in the world. The well wishers must have put themselves in the shoes of the harmed and strongly felt that they would have required help as well. Group identification Human beings are very keen on attachments on a group of people. Profound attachments are linked to a group of people and antipathy to non members of a group. According to McAndrew (2002pp.80) arguments, this confirms that in the society there are mixed feelings when the members of a group are concerned. Members of the same group tend to display more altruistical feelings towards members of their groups unlike non members in case of tragic events that require saving members of their group. Identification of members of their group enables creation of sacrificial feelings towards the other member. Members feel loyal to their group and are obliged to to offer any form of assistance required of them (Lewis, Cialdini, Brown, Luce and Neuberg 2007pp.91). Group-based selflessness- altruism- is the ultimate product of this identification. The well wishers of Brisbane flood tragedy are well aware of the fact that the victims are members of their group and it is required that they offer any form of assistance they can. They are therefore justified to offer their help. Group size It is expected that human beings encompass the ability to come up with group agreements that in times of disasters, they may be in a position to protect them effectively (Mealey, 2005 pp540). In these group sizes people are able to adapt to the norms of the society that require they be active members of the society. Researchers have argued that group sizes maintain cooperation among individuals in the group. It is these groups that tangible decisions are made that solve problems in the society. Our case study is an example of a group size that is coming together to aid members of their group from the tragic flood event. Group stability According to the theory of social exchange, humans always have a passion of enjoying group stability (Hamilton 2004 pp. 29). Individual are likely to cooperate more in a group in order to maintain its ability and advancements. This is aimed to maintain their prestige and what they worked for a very long time. Individuals are therefore more sensitive to all the issues that pertain to their gropu both positive and negative issues since they have invested a lot in the group. In order to maintain their integrity they continually come together to join hands to solve the problems and challenges facing them. The well wishers of Brisbane flood tragedy are bound to help in order to maintain the stability of the group they belong. Conclusion Human beings are social beings and are very unique from other mammals. It is this fact that lead to their ability to reason and work towards saving the human race by offering help to those that have a relationship to them not necessarily blood relationship. From the above discussion we are able to understand the underlying factors towards offering of help by well-wishers after the Brisbane flood tragedy. References Ashton, M., Paunonen, V., Helmes, E. and Douglas, N. (2008). Kin altruism, reciprocal altruism, and the Big Five personality factors. Evolution of Human Behavior 1:243–55 Bard, K. (2002). Developmental processes in empathy. Behavioral Brain Science. 25:25–26 Batson, C.D. (2007). The Altruism Question: Toward a Social-Psychological Answer. Hillsdale, NY: Erlbaum Batson, C.D. and Ahmad, N. (2007). Empathy-induced altruism in a prisoner’s dilemma II: What if the target of empathy has defected? Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 31:25–36 Dunbar, R., Lycett, J. and Barrett, L, (2006). Human Evolutionary Psychology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press Duncan, B. D., Batson, C. D. and Ackerman, P., Buckley, T. and Birch, K. (2001). Is empathic emotion a source of altruistic motivation? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 290-302. Hamilton, W. D. (2004). The genetical evolution of social behavior, I, II. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7, 1-52. Kitayama, S., Crandall, C., and Burnstein, E., (2004). Some neo-Darwinian decision rules for altruism: Weighing cues for inclusive fitness as a function of the biological importance of the decision. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 773-789. Lewis, B.P. , Cialdini, R.B, Brown. S., Luce, C and Neuberg, S.L. (2007). Reinterpreting the empathy-altruism relationship: when one into one equals oneness. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 72:481–94 McAndrew, F. T. (2002). New evolutionary perspectives on altruism: Multi-level selection and costly signaling theories. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 79-82. Mealey, L. (2005). The sociobiology of sociopathy: An integrated evolutionary model. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18, 523-599. Nunney, L. (2005). Group selection, altruism, and structured-deme models. American Naturalist, 126, 212-230. Penner L.A., and Dovidio J.F. (2001). Helping and altruism. In International Handbook of Social Psychology: Interpersonal Processes, ed.GFletcher,MClark, pp. 162–195. Oxford: Blackwell Sci. Queller, D. C. (2001). Group selection and kin selection. Trends in Ecology and evolution, 6(2), 64. Rachal, K. C ., McCullough, M. E., and Worthington, E. L.(1997). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 321-336. Tyler, T., & Smith, H. (2008). Social justice and social movements. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey, Handbook of Social Psychology (pp. 595-632). New York: McGraw-Hill Wieselquist, J., Rusbult, C. E., Foster, G. A., & Agnew, C. R. (1999). Commitment, pro-relationship behavior, and trust in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 942-966. Read More

To attain solutions to a problem, they have to engage the other members of the society who might have ideas that will provide a workable solution to their problems. If they work as a group, the process of engagement resultant from exchanges; amicable agreements are attained. Prosocial behaviors may be linked to psychological aspects like negative effects, devotion and obligations, exculpation, compassion in addition to other collective emotions, norms, group credentials and racism, group size, its stability, and variations in prosocial outlooks.

From Batson and Ahmad (2007 pp.30) arguments’, prosocial behavior may be viewed on an evolutionary point of view. Our task will aim to understand the reasons behind the volunteers of the Brisbane floods that has made a name of the worst flood in history. After the floods, an army of volunteers turned out to help with the clean-up yet they were not related to the victims of the flood. We shall account for this behavior on a prosocial angle that basically describes human beings as being social and have a major relationship and interactions unlike animals.

Just as Duncan, Batson and Ackerman, Buckley and Birch (2001 pp.300) state we are have a greater connection unlike other mammals like the sharks, hyenas whose relationship does not go beyond mating encounters. For human beings, they say this relationship goes way beyond such engagements. In the essay, we shall also include; altruism theories, evolutionary theories, kin selection- cultural contribution, religion, same personalities -, norms of reciprocity, group selection, individual differences, personality types, gender as determinants of prosocial behavior.

Altruism According to Bard (2002 pp.25), altruism deals with the worry of other people’s welfare. In many cultures, altruism has been considered a virtue that all members of the society were required to uphold. This may have a relationship with the religious point of view that incorporated feelings of care of other people’s need. However, it is important to note various cultures and religions have dissimilar points of view on the same but the key word related is eradication of egocentrism among members of the society.

Altruism also advocates for provision of help and motivation to other parties other than you despite your relationship. It makes it a moral obligation to all members of the society to help therefore converting them to loyalties of others in the groups they inhabit in the society (Batson, 2007 pp.20), argues that altruism does not wait for a reward either monetary or recognition so all members of the society must have this fact at the back of their minds. This may be summarized as an ethical principle that requires to always be obliged to help and benefit other people with no hope of reward.

It should be innate and come out automatically when need for help is required especially in urgent times. It may also be used to members who are egoistic to shun away from the vice as they may also require help fro others when they are in an irreparable situation. In relation to our case study, we are justified to attribute the behavior of the army of volunteers turned out to help with the clean-up after the fatal Brisbane floods to the premise of altruism. They offered help as a result of mere self sacrifice a deviation from a ‘self’ life.

They are seen to sacrifice all they have at the expense of their safety, comfortability, which every individual would want to sit back and enjoy to the fullest. They however, have put their egos to the line to simply offer help to a needy person. Just like the theme of altruism states that we should always act to benefit others, these well wishers have proven to be real altruists. Duncan, Batson and Ackerman, Buckley and Birch (2001 pp.299) state that comprehensive altruism takes complete responsibility of others not one’s felicities; these well wishers undoubtedly have basic altruistic values.

They may also be regarded to as members and successors of an altruistic generation from their generational selflessness.

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