Motivational Theories - Coursework Example

Motivational Theories (Name) (Institution) (Grade/course) (Instructor’s Name) November 18th, 2009 Introduction Motivation has in the recent past gained popularity in organizations and learning institutions. The idea behind motivation is to improve the performance of an individual through encouragement and mentoring however. However, motivation is deeper than that; it has psychological, intellectual and emotional aspects. Psychologically, motivation aims to increase the level of arousal which is basically the readiness or eagerness to engage in an activity (Wong, 2000). Under normal circumstances, one would aspire to be highly motivated always but it is not the case always. Levels of arousal should be kept at an optimum level as the maximum does not always imply good results. In most cases, low levels of motivation exist and hence the development of motivation theories to explain the pattern or examine ways of raising arousal levels to optimum. There are a number of motivation theories developed by a number of behavioral scientists and psychologists. Although there is no theory that is deemed more superior than the other, each has its application where it fits best. This paper thus analyses two of the common theories, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory and McClelland’s acquired needs theory and criticize and discuss their application in different situations. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs This theory is named after the man who developed it, Abraham Maslow. Although published in 1954, he first developed this concept in 1943 which was a major deviation from the motivation theories purported by other scholars such as B.F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov which described stimulus as the major driver of human behavior (Maslow, 1970). As a humanist psychologist, Maslow opposed the existing views that human beings are pushed and pulled by mechanical forces, either of stimuli and reinforcements (behaviorism) or of unconscious instinctual impulses (psychoanalysis). As a humanist, his approach focused upon human potentials believing that humans always strive for their upper level of capabilities and full potentials (Wong, 2000; Misters, 2004). As a humanistic psychologist, Maslow postulated that there is a general pattern of needs recognition and satisfaction that people follow in general. He recognized five levels of needs from the most basic, derived from instincts, to the highest which he described as a fully functioning human being who seeks frontiers of creativity, wisdom and strives for the highest level of consciousness (Stevens & Pashlser, 2002). However, the needs are also loosely grouped into two: deficiency needs and growth needs. Deficiency needs demand that they must first be met before seeking to satisfy other needs. If the lower need recurs again, then individuals first seek to fulfill that need. The growth needs are only those pursued after fulfilling the deficiency needs. According to this theory, a human being’s needs differentiate him from animals which tend to rely only on instinctual needs. To Maslow, the higher the level of needs in the hierarchy, the higher a human being is developed (Rainey, 2009). The five hierarchies are as shown in the figure below. Source: Huitt (2004) http://ways-ahead.net/meditation/037-2-Maslow.pdf Physiological Needs These are the most basic needs and also considered as biological needs. They include air, water, food, a relatively constant body temperature (offered by shelter) and other bodily comforts. Safety Needs Safety is basically viewed as the absence of danger. Safety needs are pursued after all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer control or motivate the thoughts and actions of an individual. At this level, arousal is obtained from the need to achieve and retain security. Unfortunately, adults have little awareness of their security needs unless they experience the absence of it such during emergency situations of conflict and war. Children on the other hand adequately display their needs for safety due to their vulnerable age (Rainey, 2009). Needs of Love After satisfying safety needs, individuals pursue emotional satisfaction in the name of love affection and a sense of belonging. Maslow states that people in this level seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and isolation. Consequently, they give love and show affection in expectation of the favor to be returned (Wong, 2000). Needs for Esteem Esteem needs are basically that. After satisfying all the needs above, individuals pursue to gain some self confident and feel their self worth. This is mostly attained by how people and situations respond to a person though it is highly determined by perception. When the first three classes of needs are satisfied, the needs for esteem can become dominant. Lack of low or levels of self esteem diminish confidence breed frustrations as one feels almost worthless on the surface of the earth. Needs for Self-Actualization This is the last level and the highest. According to Maslow, it represents a complete and satisfied person. At this stage, a person seeks to pursue what he feels is what is destined for him e.g. if one was born a painter, strives to paint. The need for self actualization is usually manifested by some degree of restlessness where the source is not always obvious. Strengths of Maslow This theory is one of the most widely applied motivational theories. The fact that it is applicable in many situations from management to learning has contributed towards its popularity. Again, a lot of testing in empirical research supports the arguments of this theory. The theory also supports other proposals such as the one by William James (1892/1962) and another one by Mathes (1981). William suggested that there are three levels of needs namely material, social and spiritual which loosely coincide with the grouping by Maslow On the other hand, Mathes proposed that the three levels of needs were physiological, belongingness, and self-actualization and considered self esteem and security as irrelevant (Huitt, 2004). The theory has been used in the development of many social welfare programs. Taking cue from this theory, social programs provide basic needs to impoverished people in the hope that they will be able to meet other needs up the hierarchy and assist them reach their self actualization (Huitt, 2004). Weakness The subdivision of needs into five groups is fine and is supported by other theories only that the idea of hierarchy fails. Huitt (2004) says that it is wrong and misleading to assume that all persons who have managed to meet their basic needs are moving towards achieving their emotional and safety needs. He argues that in the corporate America, there are a number of high ranking officials who lack sense of belonging and have even failed to realize their purpose in life as the theory suggests. On the contrary, people living in the streets and relying on handouts have shown more optimism in life and receive and show more affection than other people that have already met those needs as per the Maslow model. The Maslow model actually deviates from a humanistic point of view by focusing on needs than on capabilities. Instead of providing a methodology to which one can meet his needs, the theory just outlines a process that is not even feasible as shown above. Therefore, given that the theory has been used in many social programs in and outside the US, it implies that the theory offers no solution to poverty reduction (Huitt, 2004). Barling (1977) argues that the application of the theory in management is flawed as it ignores values, a very important component in organizational management and HR policy. He says that the application of the theory in organizations is somehow impossible as organizational issues might limit self actualization in an organizational context where one has to stick to job description but not what he perceives to be what ‘he was born to do’. In most cases, organizational goals might differ with one’s self actualization. McClelland’s acquired needs theory This theory is closely similar to the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. The theory developed by David McClelland in 1985 and hence the theory took up his name. In this theory he proposed that a person’s specific needs are shaped by culture and experience and develop gradually. He grouped these needs into three; achievement (n Ach), affiliation (n Aff) and power (n Pow). He argued that an individual is motivated by these three needs which are shaped by prevailing circumstances and experience (McClelland’s theory of needs, 2007). Achievement Achievement according to McClelland is the desire to excel and hence individuals tend to steer away from high risk and low risk situations. Low risk situations are avoided as the attained success offers low levels of satisfaction. On the other hand, high risk situations offer have high levels of doubt on the ability to achieve. In fact individuals tend attribute success at high risk situations to luck and not a direct result of their efforts. Therefore individuals strive to attain success at medium risk situations where they are guaranteed that their efforts will count significantly towards their achievement and the satisfaction from that will be relatively high. Power The need for power is grouped into two: personal and institutional or social power need. Personal power needs motivate individual to gain authority over other people. In most cases, these types of needs create dictators and high handedness in politics and management respectively. Institutional power needs motivate persons to organize the efforts of others and lead them in achieving a certain goal. This type of power need is deemed very appropriate for leaders and managers. Affiliation Individuals are motivated by the need to forge relationships and unions with workmates or people they work closely with. As such, the nature of work determines the level of need. Such persons desire to feel appreciated and accepted by others which motivate them by increasing their levels of arousal. Individuals with high needs of achievements perform well in the service industry where people interaction is paramount. Strengths The McClelland’s theory has been approved by a number of tests that shows its high levels of validity. The fact that the suggestions by the theory are empirically observable strengthens its application and adds on its relevance. This theory is best tested using the thematic appreciation test (TAT) that identifies needs of individuals that help in pinpointing at which position they should work best in the work situation. The theory covers up the omissions of other relevant needs left out by the Maslow’s theory. For instance power plays a very significant role in every day life and thus the inclusion of that in the model makes a more reliable theory of identifying human needs. According to Rainey (2009), the McClelland theory shows a relationship between people’s needs and economic performance of a particular country. He says that a country that has a culture of achievements needs established among the people have high success rates in economic growth. The theory also showed that achievements needs encourage entrepreneurial minds. Again, governments led by a leader who displays high need for social or institutional power enjoy better economic progress and political stability. Weaknesses The theory does not explain on how to nurture and develop ways top satisfy needs. The theory also generalizes needs which is impossible in reality. The need for power for example may at times fail to exist in various aspects, something that the theory fails to recognize. Still on the issue of power, the theory fails to fully appreciate the challenges and problems associated with excessive need for power. Although it recognizes that there are two types of power, the theory fails to give direction on how to motivate or transform one power need to the other. The theory fails to recognize culture at the community, society, organization or institutional level. Bates (2009) notes that all needs theory including McClelland fail in recognizing the role of culture in identifying and satisfying needs. Culture also determines the priority of needs and energies and efforts dedicated towards satisfying each. Application Both of these theories show their strength and weaknesses in application in various situations. Governments have used Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory to indicate the type of help that people need i.e. shelter food and clothing to the homeless and destitute. However, the theory has avoided some very significant needs such as power. Distribution of power within any given situation determines the ability to satisfy given needs such physiological ones (Mullins, 2007; Hofstede, 1980). The Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory has been used extensively in the learning environment to motivate students. Motivation as a psychological aspect is governed by arousal as earlier said. Therefore, in the classroom situation, tutor’s can borrow from the Maslow’s theory to increase of lower the level of motivation given the prevailing circumstances in order to enhance concentration and attentiveness. For instance to increase levels of arousal, tutors can crack jokes in class, avoid monotony, engaging students in the learning process by asking questions and giving breaks during long class sessions (Bates, 2009; Motivation as a Personality Characteristic, n.d.). Organizations can also adopt the Maslow’s model in employee performance improvement initiatives. This entails first facilitating employees to satisfy their basic needs through proper remunerations, provision of living quarters, medical cover etc. In the long run, employees attain self actualization which according to Rainey (2009) fuels innovation and creativity in the workplace. The McClelland theory can be applied in encouraging entrepreneurship more so in rural areas and developing nations. The need for achievement encourages individuals to make investments that have moderate risks. The balancing of the risk aspect is a fundamental issue in business management and as such, a government of organizations such as NGO’s or microfinance institutions should employ the TAT test to identify potential investors and finance them (Hofstede, 1980 ). The McClelland theory can be used in employee evaluation using the thematic appreciation test. This test helps evaluate suitability of employees at various positions. For instance the TAT shows that persons displaying higher n Aff should be working at positions where they interact with people such as customer care or reception (Huitt, 2004). The McClelland and the Maslow theories are among the most widely used motivation theories. Though they are not perfect, they serve their purpose effectively. Maslow’s theory is very effective in the leaning process and also motivation of employees. The McClelland theory is also effective as a management tool. As shown, it can be used within an organization to evaluate employees and other potential partners in business. Unfortunately, no single motivation theory has shown to be perfect for a particular situation. However a combination of theories is employed to make them more effective where they are complementary. Unfortunately, some theories, though not discussed in the paper argue against the Maslow and the McClelland’s theories. References Barling, J. (1977). A critical review of the application of Maslow's motivation theory in industry, Perspectives in Industrial Psychology Vol. 3 (1), (Retrieved online on 19th Nov 2009 from), http://sajip.co.za/index.php/sajip/article/viewFile/282/278 Bates, V. (2009) Human Needs Theory: Applications for Music Education Action, Criticism & Theory for Music Education, 8/1: 12-34, (Retrieved online on 19th Nov 2009 from) http://act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Bates8_1.pdf Hofstede, G. (1980). Motivation, leadership, and organization: Do American theories apply, abroad?, Organizational dynamics, AMACOM, (Retrieved online on 19th Nov 2009 from) http://users.ipfw.edu/todorovz/teaching/401/readings/Motivation%20Ldrshp%20and%20Orgn%20Do%20American%20Theories.pdf Huitt, W. (2004). Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, (retrieved online on 19th Nov 2009 from) http://ways-ahead.net/meditation/037-2-Maslow.pdf Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and Personality 3rd ed, New York: Longman, (Retrieved online on 19th Nov 2009 from) http://faculty.spokanefalls.edu/InetShare/AutoWebs/kimt/maslow%20unmotiv%20beh.pdf McClelland’s theory of needs, (2007), (retrieved online on 19th Nov 2009 from) http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/mcclelland/ Misters, J. (2004). Want to Get People out of Poverty? Replace Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs with Masters Circles of Strength, (retrieved online on 19th Nov 2009 from) www.cencomfut.com/Opinions/11-MastersOverMaslow.doc Motivation as a Personality Characteristic, (n.d), (retrieved online on 19th Nov 2009 from) http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdpsyBook/Edpsy5/Edpsy5_personality.htm Mullins, L. (2007). Management and organizational behavior, 8th ed, New York: Financial Times Prentice Hall Physiological Aspects of Motivation, (Retrieved online on 19th Nov 2009 from), http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdpsyBook/Edpsy5/Edpsy5_physiological.htm Rainey, H. (2009). Understanding and managing public organizations, 4th ed, Boston: John Wiley and Sons Stevens, S. & Pashlser, H. (2002). Steven's Handbook of Experimental Psychology: Learning, motivation, and emotion, Volume 3, Boston: John Wiley and Sons Wong, R (2000). Motivation: a biobehavioural approach, New York: Cambridge University Press Read More

To Maslow, the higher the level of needs in the hierarchy, the higher a human being is developed (Rainey, 2009). The five hierarchies are as shown in the figure below. Source: Huitt (2004) http://ways-ahead.net/meditation/037-2-Maslow.pdf Physiological Needs These are the most basic needs and also considered as biological needs. They include air, water, food, a relatively constant body temperature (offered by shelter) and other bodily comforts. Safety Needs Safety is basically viewed as the absence of danger.

Safety needs are pursued after all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer control or motivate the thoughts and actions of an individual. At this level, arousal is obtained from the need to achieve and retain security. Unfortunately, adults have little awareness of their security needs unless they experience the absence of it such during emergency situations of conflict and war. Children on the other hand adequately display their needs for safety due to their vulnerable age (Rainey, 2009).

Needs of Love After satisfying safety needs, individuals pursue emotional satisfaction in the name of love affection and a sense of belonging. Maslow states that people in this level seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and isolation. Consequently, they give love and show affection in expectation of the favor to be returned (Wong, 2000). Needs for Esteem Esteem needs are basically that. After satisfying all the needs above, individuals pursue to gain some self confident and feel their self worth.

This is mostly attained by how people and situations respond to a person though it is highly determined by perception. When the first three classes of needs are satisfied, the needs for esteem can become dominant. Lack of low or levels of self esteem diminish confidence breed frustrations as one feels almost worthless on the surface of the earth. Needs for Self-Actualization This is the last level and the highest. According to Maslow, it represents a complete and satisfied person. At this stage, a person seeks to pursue what he feels is what is destined for him e.g. if one was born a painter, strives to paint.

The need for self actualization is usually manifested by some degree of restlessness where the source is not always obvious. Strengths of Maslow This theory is one of the most widely applied motivational theories. The fact that it is applicable in many situations from management to learning has contributed towards its popularity. Again, a lot of testing in empirical research supports the arguments of this theory. The theory also supports other proposals such as the one by William James (1892/1962) and another one by Mathes (1981).

William suggested that there are three levels of needs namely material, social and spiritual which loosely coincide with the grouping by Maslow On the other hand, Mathes proposed that the three levels of needs were physiological, belongingness, and self-actualization and considered self esteem and security as irrelevant (Huitt, 2004). The theory has been used in the development of many social welfare programs. Taking cue from this theory, social programs provide basic needs to impoverished people in the hope that they will be able to meet other needs up the hierarchy and assist them reach their self actualization (Huitt, 2004).

Weakness The subdivision of needs into five groups is fine and is supported by other theories only that the idea of hierarchy fails. Huitt (2004) says that it is wrong and misleading to assume that all persons who have managed to meet their basic needs are moving towards achieving their emotional and safety needs. He argues that in the corporate America, there are a number of high ranking officials who lack sense of belonging and have even failed to realize their purpose in life as the theory suggests.

On the contrary, people living in the streets and relying on handouts have shown more optimism in life and receive and show more affection than other people that have already met those needs as per the Maslow model.

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