Two Theories of Personality - Essay Example

There are a number of personality theories that have been presented and used to analyze thoughts and psychology and emotional status of people. Two of the most compared are the personality theirs instigated by Freud and Skinner. This paper is aimed at doing an in-depth analysis of Freud’s and Skinner’s personality theories. More specifically, this paper is aimed defining and classifying all underlying theories involved and in the end comparing the said theories. Freud’s Personality Theory Sigmund Freud: The Beginning Sigmund Freud, an Austrian psychiatrist, founded the theory of psychoanalysis. He was born in Moravia, but he lived most of his life in Vienna, receiving his medical degree from the University of Vienna in 1881. His medical career began with an apprenticeship, on 1885– 1886, under J. M. Charcot in Paris, and soon after his return to Vienna he began his famous collaboration with Josef Breuer on the use of hypnosis in the treatment of hysteria. Their paper, entitled “On the Psychical Mechanism of Hysterical Phenomena”, which is more fully developed in Studien über Hysterie, marked the beginnings of psychoanalysis in the discovery that the symptoms of hysterical patients - directly traceable to psychic trauma in earlier life - represent undercharged emotional energy (“Freud, Sigmund”, 2001). The therapy, called the cathartic method, consisted of having the patient recall and reproduces the forgotten scenes while under hypnosis. The medical profession poorly received the work, and the two men soon separated over Freud's growing conviction that the undefined energy causing conversion was sexual in nature. Freud then rejected hypnosis and devised a technique called free association, which he then believed would allow emotionally charged material that the individual had repressed in the unconscious to emerge to conscious recognition. His further works, The Interpretation of Dreams, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, and Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, increased the bitter antagonism toward Freud, and he worked alone until 1906, when he was joined by the Swiss psychiatrists Eugen Bleuler and C. G. Jung, the Austrian Alfred Adler, and others (“Freud, Sigmund”, 2001). Sigmund Freud has written three controversial essays that generally talk about sexuality and/or that of psychoanalytic behavior. Freud's theory of developmental stages focuses on the sexual aspect of development which became obvious in the names he had coined with his suggested developmental stages. His own preoccupation with sexuality caused him to focus on and look for sexual connections within human development. Freud recognized nature as the leading factor in cognitive development; hence his psychosexual theory views human development outside of the societal context. He implies that a child, views other humans simply as "objects of affection” rather than suppliers to their cognitive development. As a result, when a child moves from one psychosexual stage to another, his/her object of affection changes in order to please a particular instinctual desire. Freud’s Theories Sigmund Freud’s theories of personality are the best known of all psychological theories and the most controversial as well. It was Freud who asserted, “Reason does not rule behavior”. It was his supposition that unconscious psychological forces were a strong force affecting individual thought and behavior. He stated that these forces originate in the emotions of childhood and continue to affect an individual throughout their lifetime. In his view, man was driven by primal instincts of the unconsciousness, and it was these instincts that lead to our greatest achievements (Bethel, 2004) as well as to our worst side, like poverty, war, crime and mental illness. Freud hypothesized three levels of mind: the conscious mind, the preconscious mind, and the unconscious mind. He felt that our conscious mind only accounted for a small portion of the totality of the self, and the vast unconscious mind accounted for the rest. Freud believed that much of the unconscious content that affects humans is made up of inherited primal fantasies based on phylogenic experiences, that are fantasies that are species based, not individual based. Freud’s main interests lay in understanding how personal experience shaped and formed the unconscious mind. It was his assertion that this formative pressure occurred through a process known as repression. Freud’s “hedonic hypothesis” stipulated that people seek pleasure and avoid pain. It was also Freud who initiated the concepts of the id, ego, and the super-ego. The id is primarily concerned with biological drives and survival and is nearly always unconscious. It operates by the pleasure principle and is hedonistic, that is, it seeks to satisfy urges and reduce tensions. Freud theorized that the id is the structure of the mind that is responsible for the psychic sexual energy known as libido (Bethel, 2004). The ego, on the other hand, is the structure of the personality that brings about a sense of unity of person. It is the part of the mind that is in contact with the objective world. It operates by the “reality principle”; it understands the real world and uses logic and reasoning to operate within it. The ego is adaptive and able to learn quickly to the changing circumstances outside the personality (Bethel, 2004). It is able to delay self-gratification, which is termed “secondary process”. A strong ego is essential for survival, and to stave off the onslaught of unconscious negative emotions that would be paralyzing otherwise. Therefore, contrary to much esoteric literature, a strong healthy ego is a must for inner exploration (Bethel, 2004). Meanwhile, super-ego is the structure of the mind that is the representative for the rules and ideals of family and society. It generates feelings of guilt when we act in a way not in accordance with our higher ideals. Due to the fact that the super-ego forms in childhood, it is a very juvenile and rigid moral system. Freud believed mature ethics are not derived from the super-ego, but the ego. Due to the fact that these three structures do not normally exist peacefully, much psychic energy is used by the ego to keep the unconscious repressions at bay. There are nine defense mechanisms that Freud marked out and all them begin their process through the repressing of socially unacceptable urges into the unconscious. Denial is the most primitive of the defense mechanisms and occurs when an individual will not acknowledge the repressed feeling at all. This can often lead to nervous breakdown and very bad health. Reaction formation is another primitive defense, where the unacceptable impulse is repressed and its opposite is developed in an exaggerated form. An example of reaction formation would be an instance where an employee hates their boss and represses that urge, only to then exhibit overly exaggerated admiration or love for them. Projection is the third mechanism whereby the repressed content is projected out onto another person. This mechanism is a major force behind racism and prejudice. Displacement is the mechanism whereby the repressed primitive urge is displaced onto another object or person. The kick the dog syndrome is a perfect example of this mechanism. The fifth defense mechanism is identification and is the process of borrowing or merging one’s identity with another person’s. This other person is a complete symbol of the repressed content. Isolation is another mechanism in which thoughts related to some unpleasant occurrence are disassociated from thinking and, therefore, do not come into mind. Rationalization is, of course, the mechanism whereby the repressed content is allowed to emerge; however, these actions are explained away through plausible, yet false, rationalizations (“Freud, Sigmund”, 2001). This mechanism involves relatively little distortion of the original content; consequently, it is a somewhat mature defense mechanism. Intellectualization is the eighth mechanism that Freud defined for dealing with psychic distress. In intellectualization, the mechanism is very similar to rationalization; however, in this defense the impulse is covered up thru lengthy and elaborate intellectual games. This again is a more advanced mechanism than the primitive mechanisms listed above, but the content is still not seen for what it really is. The most desirable and healthy way of dealing with unacceptable impulses is through sublimation. Sublimation is the process whereby the individual finds socially acceptable objects for the expression of unacceptable impulses. This allows an indirect discharge of the pent up impulses, while leading to constructive and socially approved behavior. Great works of art for instance usually represents the sublimated libido. Surgery is the sublimation of more violent urges, and competitive athletics is also the sublimation of aggressive urges. In moving toward an integrated self and positive self image, it is vital that an individual realize these processes and begin to uncover the hidden motives and agendas behind the defenses (“Freud, Sigmund”, 2001). . Only through the unraveling of these behavior games and mechanisms is the unconscious merged and assimilated into the collective image of the self. Although Freud’s psychoanalytical theory is by no means the only model of the personality, it is a model that we still use when considering the psyche. Through this model, we can understand the dynamics of our unconsciousness and the repressed content and conflicts contained within. It gives us a clear lens with which to peer into the caverns of our mind, uncovering the past hurts and conflicts that take away from an authentic and integrated life. As these conflicts and repressions are uncovered, and the latent energies within them unleashed, the higher self can absorb this stolen and locked away energy, turning it into useful ambition and willpower. When the bottled up pressure of the unconscious mind is released in a constructive way, the personality can assimilate these forces and walk more steadily and calmly toward pure contentment (“Freud, Sigmund”, 2001). . It is very evident that Freud is a firm believer that sexuality is innate and that it cannot be controlled by the human brain. And he kept on stressing this. Like for example when he wrote the book Totem and Taboo book which he also applied the theories and evidence of his psychoanalytic investigations to the study of aboriginal peoples and, by extension, to the earliest cultural stages of the human race before the rise of large-scale civilizations. In the said book, Freud is pointing out that the striking parallels between the cultural practices of native tribal groups and the behavior patterns of neurotics. In Totem and taboo, Freud uses lines which specifically imply that some, if not all, of the rituals followed and patronized by various cultures are part of the human’s psychological reactions to what we now know as “taboo”. This then limits the reenactment of juvenile impulses which would certainly turn our as possible destruction for the society in the near future. As the denouement of the book, Freud invoked his famous Oedipal complex as the key to the development of culture. Come to think of it, recalling some of the rituals of various cultures, we, can easily denote, as what Freud noticed, that the subdued psychological urge of killing a father because of the hunger for the mother’s sole attention and has always been the highlighted and personified, along with the anger of their Gods, the picturesque actions of how the sins and how it affects the guilt the humans have. With all the studies he had initiated, with all the concepts he had left as a legacy to man’s psychology and philosophy, it is then clear that he had remain believing that all his theories are true, and that includes his theory on innate sexuality and personality. Skinner’s Personality Theory The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced or rewarded, the individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning is that the organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus (“Operant Conditioning”, 2004). Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers - any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is (“Operant Conditioning”, 2004). Operant conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification) as well as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction). Principles involved in this Skinner’s principle are (“Operant Conditioning”, 2004): 1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective 2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping") 3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary conditioning. Conclusion Many professionals prefer Freud’s model because it is believed that it is the first principle that take into consideration the concept that the different functions of the mind is and can operate at different levels. With this very thought, it can be seen that Freud’s model has somewhat modern approach at looking into the psychological mind models of humans. Furthermore, it is only in this Freud’s model where the concepts of conscious and unconscious state of the mind were given emphasis, making it more realistic and more humanistic approach in analyzing why certain personalities tend to have different reactions on different things or occurrence. More so, Freud’s theory will be very helpful in medical and health practices, especially in the psychology and/or mental health divisions. Through acquiring enough knowledge and mastery of man’s conscious and unconscious behaviors, concerned physicians and medical practitioners can better understand what level or state of mind a person is in. Psychologists can provide better diagnoses and offer advises and/or information with regards to ideas such as how to better control libidos, anger management, emotion control etc. References: A.A. Brill (1922). Psycho-Analysis. Allen, Bem P. (2000) “Personality Theories. Development, Growth, and Diversity” (Third Edition). Boston: Allyn and Bacon Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford. Bethel, Jonathan. (2004). “Psychological Models – Freud.” 1stHolistic.com. viewed online Corey, Gerald. 1982. “Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy” University of Michigan: Brooks/Cole Pub. Co. Craighead, E., Corsini, R. and Nemeroff C. 2002. “The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science” John Wiley and Sons Ernest, Jones. Papers on Psycho-Analysis “Freud, Sigmund”. (2000) Totem and Taboo. Prometheus Books “Freud, Sigmund”. (2001). The PSI Café. Viewed online John, O. 2008. “Handbook of personality; theory and research”, 3d ed. Guilford Pr. Gale, Cengage Learning Hall, C and Lindzey G. 1957. “Theories of personality” University of Michigan: Wiley Hampson, S. 1988. “The construction of personality: an introduction” Published by Routledge ISBN 0415002567, 9780415002561 Hersen, M. Thomas, J and Segal D. 2005 “Comprehensive handbook of personality and psychopathology” John Wiley and Sons Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340. Mischel, W. (1993). Introduction to personality (5th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace. Muus, R. (1996). “Theories of Adolescence”. New York: McGraw Hill. “Operant Conditioning” 2004. Viewed online “Psychoanalysis: Freudian School”. 2004 viewed online Pervin, L and John O. 2001. “Handbook of personality: theory and research” Edition 2 Guilford Press, ISBN 1572306955, 9781572306950 Rychalk, J. 1968 “A Philosophy of Science for Personality” Cornell University: Houghton Mifflin Read More

He felt that our conscious mind only accounted for a small portion of the totality of the self, and the vast unconscious mind accounted for the rest. Freud believed that much of the unconscious content that affects humans is made up of inherited primal fantasies based on phylogenic experiences, that are fantasies that are species based, not individual based. Freud’s main interests lay in understanding how personal experience shaped and formed the unconscious mind. It was his assertion that this formative pressure occurred through a process known as repression.

Freud’s “hedonic hypothesis” stipulated that people seek pleasure and avoid pain. It was also Freud who initiated the concepts of the id, ego, and the super-ego. The id is primarily concerned with biological drives and survival and is nearly always unconscious. It operates by the pleasure principle and is hedonistic, that is, it seeks to satisfy urges and reduce tensions. Freud theorized that the id is the structure of the mind that is responsible for the psychic sexual energy known as libido (Bethel, 2004).

The ego, on the other hand, is the structure of the personality that brings about a sense of unity of person. It is the part of the mind that is in contact with the objective world. It operates by the “reality principle”; it understands the real world and uses logic and reasoning to operate within it. The ego is adaptive and able to learn quickly to the changing circumstances outside the personality (Bethel, 2004). It is able to delay self-gratification, which is termed “secondary process”.

A strong ego is essential for survival, and to stave off the onslaught of unconscious negative emotions that would be paralyzing otherwise. Therefore, contrary to much esoteric literature, a strong healthy ego is a must for inner exploration (Bethel, 2004). Meanwhile, super-ego is the structure of the mind that is the representative for the rules and ideals of family and society. It generates feelings of guilt when we act in a way not in accordance with our higher ideals. Due to the fact that the super-ego forms in childhood, it is a very juvenile and rigid moral system.

Freud believed mature ethics are not derived from the super-ego, but the ego. Due to the fact that these three structures do not normally exist peacefully, much psychic energy is used by the ego to keep the unconscious repressions at bay. There are nine defense mechanisms that Freud marked out and all them begin their process through the repressing of socially unacceptable urges into the unconscious. Denial is the most primitive of the defense mechanisms and occurs when an individual will not acknowledge the repressed feeling at all.

This can often lead to nervous breakdown and very bad health. Reaction formation is another primitive defense, where the unacceptable impulse is repressed and its opposite is developed in an exaggerated form. An example of reaction formation would be an instance where an employee hates their boss and represses that urge, only to then exhibit overly exaggerated admiration or love for them. Projection is the third mechanism whereby the repressed content is projected out onto another person. This mechanism is a major force behind racism and prejudice.

Displacement is the mechanism whereby the repressed primitive urge is displaced onto another object or person. The kick the dog syndrome is a perfect example of this mechanism. The fifth defense mechanism is identification and is the process of borrowing or merging one’s identity with another person’s. This other person is a complete symbol of the repressed content. Isolation is another mechanism in which thoughts related to some unpleasant occurrence are disassociated from thinking and, therefore, do not come into mind.

Rationalization is, of course, the mechanism whereby the repressed content is allowed to emerge; however, these actions are explained away through plausible, yet false, rationalizations (“Freud, Sigmund”, 2001).

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