How the Development of Working Memory Contributes to Predicting - Literature review Example

The name of the college or university Department Name of the student……………………………………………………………………………… Index number or registration number of the student……………………………………………. ASSESSMENT OF HOW DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING MEMORY CONTRIBUTES TO PREDICTING READING COMPRHENSION IN PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN Name of the lecturer or supervisor…………………………………………………………… Department ………………………………………………………………………………….. I declare this is my original academic work and has never been submitted before for award of any degree, diploma or certificate or published in any journal or magazine. Signature of the student……………………………………date …………………………….. Signature of the supervisor/lecturer………………………..date………………………………. According to Ericsson and Delaney (1999:257-297), many children in primary schools have poor learning processes and development. Ericsson and Delaney (1999) and Cain and Oakhill (1999:489-503) agree that children continue to perform poorly in examinations despite learning resources that are available to them. Cain and Oakhill (1999) argue that poor performance in examinations lies in abilities of the children to understand the demands of the questions1. Muter, Hulme, Snowling et al (2004) suggests that poor children performance in reading comprehension2 is subject to developmental changes in children working memory that negatively affects their long term memory. According to Hannon and Daneman (2001:103-128) working memory of children is limited and this explains why generally children and man’s cognitive abilities are limited. Ericsson and Delaney (1999) argue that primary school children suffer limited pool of cognitive resources that are required to maintain and sustain representation active while at the same time making it available for processing and carrying out related applicable processes. Hannon and Daneman (2001) suggest that memory trace in working memory is short lived and requires to be refreshed through rehearsal processes that involve repeated tasks. Nation, Adams Bowyer-Crane et al (1999:139-158) indicate that the speed of rehearsal process is limited and this contributes to limited amount of information that can be sustained and maintained. Nation, Adams Bowyer-Crane et al (1999) propose that this phenomenon is subject to conflict that arises between active representations held in the working memory which predisposes interference of information3. Nation and Snowling (1999:B1-B13) suggest existence of information retrieval competition especially during tasks scheduled to recall list information in order in which they occur. According to Nation and Snowling (1999) the problem begins when retrieving the first element that conflicts with the second element. Share (1999:95-129) has named this phenomenon as transposition and is subject to conflict of neighboring information either in the short term memory, working memory or long term memory. Share (1999) argues that feature overwriting occurs whereby two related information share similar features leading into retrieval overlap. Oakhill, Cain and Bryant (2003a:443-468) argues that this is brought about by limited tradeoff between maintenance and processing of information. National institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000) suggest a time-based resource sharing model that illustrates how working memory is subject to decay unless it is continually refreshed4. Many primary school children suffer from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder that leads into deficits in working memory. Perfetti (1999) and Perfetti and Hart (2002) argue that working memory as a function of literacy and numeracy is lacking in many children and such children have working memory impairments that reflect negatively on reading comprehension. Nagy and Scott (2000) argue that children with impaired working memory perform poorly in reading comprehension. Nation, Adams, Bowyer-Crane et al (1999) suggest that working memory and not intelligence quotient is an important predictor of learning outcomes in primary school children. Both Nagy and Scott (2000) and Nation, Adams, Bowyer-Crane et al (1999) agree that working memory is a risk factor to future education of primary school children. Nation, Adams, bowyer-Crane et al (1999) argue that primary school children experience difficulties related with learning due to unclearness5 of phonological working memory representation. Nation and Snowling (1999) proposed that the reading challenge is brought about by fast saturation of phonological working memory that reduces virtual memory and understanding ability is therefore impaired. Nation, Adams, bowyer-Crane et al (1999) suggests that the problem is common in scenarios represented by long words, long sentence structures and unfamiliar vocabularies6. Nagy and Scott (2000) and Nation and Snowling (1999) agree that in the event activation of memory trace in the working memory takes long to respond, the reading process and reading comprehension is gradually slowed down and this exposes the child to risk of making memory trace to become vulnerable to errors. Nation, Adams, Bowyer-Crane et al (1999) agree this leads into decreased reading capacity. Nation and Snowling (1999) have shown that problems7 that bring about poor working memory negatively affect processing of long sentences structures. Nation and Snowling (1999) and Oakhill, Cain and Bryant (2003a) argue that there exists difference between short term memory8 and working memory9. Perfetti and Hart (2002) argue that in both for good and poor comprehenders, working memory is better placed at word recognition for excellent readers as opposed to short term memory in word recognition and reading comprehension. Perfetti (1999) suggest memory span for digits and word tests sandwiched with battery tests of phonological tasks have a linear relationship with regard to reading development. Oakhill, Cain and Bryant (2003b, May) suggests that working memory makes little contribution than phonological skills. Seigneuric, Ehrlich, Oakhill et al (2000:81-103) argue that reading quotients could not be predicted by phonological memory. Seigneuric, Ehrlich, Oakhill et al (2000:81-103) and Perfetti and Hart (2002) have both indicated that phonological memory is a better predictor for poor reading comprehension cases characterized by non word reading10. Cain and Bryant (2003a; 2003b May) has pointed out that there exists a connection between reading comprehension and working memory. Nation and Snowling (1999) argue that success of reading comprehension is a function of the working memory. Seigneuric, Ehrlich, Oakhill et al (2000:81-103) and Perfetti and Hart (2002) all point out that the process of phonological reading overrides phonological recoding11. Nation, Adams, Bowyer-Crane et al (1999) shows existence of three parameters in their longitudinal studies that differentiate school children suffering mental retardation disorder subject to specific reading retardation as a strategy for improving working memory, phonological segmentation12 and scheming formulas for reading vocabulary. Nation and Snowling (1999) made similar observation of the three variables13. According to Ericsson and Delaney (1999) phonological awareness and working memory affect reading comprehension acquisition and can be used as early predictors of children who are likely to have poor abilities in reading comprehension. Ericsson and Delaney (1999) argues that matched intelligence studies for working memory cannot be a valid tool for predicting reading comprehension because it does not account for different quantity of reading that children are exposed to. Hannon and Daneman (2001) suggest that children who are exposed to practices in reading turn out to be excellent comprehension readers and this factor paves way for an increased fluency in cognitive function both for the working memory and phonological processes and vice versa14 a concept that is termed as Matthews effect. Hannon and Daneman (2001) propose that Mathew’s effect is not subject to reading comprehension failures that poor learners suffer from in terms of IQ match methodology because this does not factor chronological ages of the school children although they may be in the same class15. Montgomery (2003:221-231) argues that children suffering from dyslexia have narrow auditory working memory as main reason for their reading difficulties16. Montgomery (2002:77-91) suggests that poorly functioning auditory working memory distorts learning of new phonological combinations and development of automated reading. Montgomery (2002; 2003) argues that the process of learning new phonological combinations is vital when learning native and foreign languages17. According to Nation and Snowling (1999), a qualitative and quantitative change in terms of working memory occurs during a child’s process of learning to read. Nation, Adams, Bowyer-Crane et al (1999) argues that this leads into activation of long term memory sectors that are required to support the reading comprehension. Nation, Adams, Bowyer-Crane et al (1999) and Nation and Snowling (1999) agree that working memory is required to receive the read information and activate long term memory Mcleod, Doorn and Reed (2001:99-110) indicate that working memory-related reading difficulties are eliminated by paying attention to the quality of the learning material and effectiveness of the child’s processing of information. Messer and Dockrell (2006:309-325) suggests that in case capacity of the working memory is weak, learning should be improved by selecting material that places less burden on the working memory. Hill (2001:149-171) argues that use of simple language is important tools that reduce the burden on the linguistic working memory. Kehoe (2001:284-294) proposes that short sentence structure facilitates faster functioning of the working memory and minimize the burden of the new information that includes short sentences and familiar vocabulary to the child. Laws and Bishop (2004:423-451) argue that activation and participation of the long-term memory during a reading event is important in reading comprehension. Law, Boyle Harris et al (2000:165-188) suggested that there are no mechanisms that can rehabilitate working memory. Law, Boyle Harris et al (2000:165-188) suggested that functioning of working memory is abstract and closely connected with steering of activity. Hill (2001:149-171) suggests that early identification of children who are at risk for reading comprehension problems should be carried out so that learning intervention mechanisms can be provided early. Kehoe (2001:284-294) argues that this will help to avoid reading comprehension problems among children. Laws and bishop (2004:423-451) proposes that children suffering from reading comprehension problems should be identified early after reading instructions exercises are commenced. Montgomery (2002:77-91; 2003:221-231) argues that there is necessity for wide knowledge of oral language skills that can be used to predict reading comprehension abilities. Messer and Dockrell (2006:309-325) suggest this will help to identify children who may be at risk for later reading problems. Bibliography Cain, K. and Oakhill, J.V. (1999). Inference Ability and its Relation to comprehension Failure in young children: Reading and Writing. Vol. 11, pp. 489-503. Cain, K., Oakhill, J.V., Barnes, M.A. and Bryant, P.E. (2001). Comprehension skill, inference-Making ability and the Relation to Knowledge. Memory and Cognition. Vol. 29; Issue no. 6, pp. 850-859. Dufva, M., Niemi, P. and Voeten, M.J.M. (2001). The Role of Phonological Memory, Word Recognition and Comprehension skills in Reading Development from Preschool to Grade 2. Reading and Writing; Vol. 14, pp. 91-117. Ericsson, K.A. and Delaney, P.F. (1999). Long-Term Memory as an Alternative to Capacity Models of Working Memory in Everyday Skilled Performance. In A. Miyake and P. Shar (Eds.), Models of Working Memory: Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive control (pp. 257-297); Cambridge University Press. Hannon, I. B. and Daneman, M. (2001). A New Tool for Measuring and Understanding Individual Differences in the Component Processes of Reading Comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology; Vol. 93, pp. 103-128. Hill, E.L. (2001). Non Specific Nature of Specific Language Impairment: A Review of the Literature With Regards to Concominant motor impediments. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders: Vol. 36, pp. 149-171. Kehoe, M.M. (2001). Prosodic Patterns in Children’s Multisyllabic Word Production. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools: Vol. 32, pp. 284-294. Laws, G. and Bishop, D.V. M. (2004). Verbal Deficits in Down’s Syndrome and Specific Language Impairment: A Comparison. International journal of Language and Communication disorders: Vol. 39, pp. 423-451. Laws, J., Boyle, J., Harris, F.Harkness, A. and Nye, C. (2000). Prevalence and Natural history of Primary Speech and Language Delay: Findings from a Systemic Review of Literature. International Journal of Language and communication Disorders: vol. 35, pp. 165-188. Mcleod, S., Doorn, J. and Reed, V.A. (2001). Normal Acquisition of consonant Clusters. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology: Vol. 10, pp. 99-110. Messer, D. and Dockrell, J.E. (2006). Children’s Naming and Word-Finding difficulties: Descriptions and Explanations. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research: vol. 49, pp. 309-325. Montgomery, J.W. (2002). Understanding the Language Difficulties of children With Specific Language Impairments: Does Verbal Working Memory Matter? American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology: Vol. 11, pp.77-91. Montgomery, J.W. (2003). Working Memory and Comprehension in children With Specific Language Impairment: What We Know so Far. Journal of Communication Disorders: Vol. 36, pp.221-231. Muter, V., Hulme, C., Snowling, M.J. and Stevenson, J. (2004). Phonemes, Rimes, Vocabulary and Grammatical Skills as Formular of Early Reading Development: Evidence From a Longitudinal Study. Developmental Psychology. Nagy, W.E. and Scott, J.A. (2000). Vocabul;ary Processes. In M.L. Kamil, P.B. Mosenthal, P. David Pearson and R. Barr (Eds.). Handbook of Reading Research (Vol. III pp. 69-284). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Nation, K. and Snowling, M.J. (1999). Developmental Differences in Sensitivity to Semantic Relations Among Good and Poor Comprehenders: Evidence From Semantic Priming. Cognition, Vol 70, pp. B1-B13. Nation, K., Adams, J.W., Bowyer-Crane, C. and Snowling, M.J. (1999). Working Memory Deficits. In Poor Comprehenders Reflect Underlying Impairments. Journal of Expermental Child Psychology. Vol 73, pp. 139-158. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel-Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence- Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for reading Instructions; (NIH Publication NO. 00-4769); Washington, DC. US government Printing Office. Oakhill, J.V., Cain, K. and Bryant, P. (2003a). The Dissociation of word reading and text Comprehension: Evidence from Component Skills. Language and Cognitive Processes; Vol. 18, pp. 443-468. Oakhill, J.V., Cain, K.E. and Bryant, P.E. (2003b, May). Prediction of comprehension skill in the primary school years. Paper Presented at the biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in child Development, Tampa. Perfetti, C. A. and Hart, L. (2002). The Lexical Quality hypothesis. In L. Vehoeven, C. Elbro and P. Reitsma (Eds.), Precusors of Functional Literacy (pp. 189-213). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Perfetti, C.A. (1999). Comprehension Written Language: A blueprint of the Reader. In C. Brown and P. Hagoort (Eds.). The Neurocognition of Language (pp. 167-208); Oxford University Press. Seigneuric, A.S., Ehrlich, M.F., Oakhill, J.V. and Yuill, N. M. (2000). Working Memory Resources and Children Reading Comprehension. Reading and Writing, Vol. 13, pp. 81-103. Share, D.L. (1999). Phonological recoding and Orthographic Reading: A Direct Test of the Self Teaching Hypothesis. Journal of Experimental and Psychology; Vol. 72, pp. 95-129. Read More

National institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000) suggest a time-based resource sharing model that illustrates how working memory is subject to decay unless it is continually refreshed4. Many primary school children suffer from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder that leads into deficits in working memory. Perfetti (1999) and Perfetti and Hart (2002) argue that working memory as a function of literacy and numeracy is lacking in many children and such children have working memory impairments that reflect negatively on reading comprehension.

Nagy and Scott (2000) argue that children with impaired working memory perform poorly in reading comprehension. Nation, Adams, Bowyer-Crane et al (1999) suggest that working memory and not intelligence quotient is an important predictor of learning outcomes in primary school children. Both Nagy and Scott (2000) and Nation, Adams, Bowyer-Crane et al (1999) agree that working memory is a risk factor to future education of primary school children. Nation, Adams, bowyer-Crane et al (1999) argue that primary school children experience difficulties related with learning due to unclearness5 of phonological working memory representation.

Nation and Snowling (1999) proposed that the reading challenge is brought about by fast saturation of phonological working memory that reduces virtual memory and understanding ability is therefore impaired. Nation, Adams, bowyer-Crane et al (1999) suggests that the problem is common in scenarios represented by long words, long sentence structures and unfamiliar vocabularies6. Nagy and Scott (2000) and Nation and Snowling (1999) agree that in the event activation of memory trace in the working memory takes long to respond, the reading process and reading comprehension is gradually slowed down and this exposes the child to risk of making memory trace to become vulnerable to errors.

Nation, Adams, Bowyer-Crane et al (1999) agree this leads into decreased reading capacity. Nation and Snowling (1999) have shown that problems7 that bring about poor working memory negatively affect processing of long sentences structures. Nation and Snowling (1999) and Oakhill, Cain and Bryant (2003a) argue that there exists difference between short term memory8 and working memory9. Perfetti and Hart (2002) argue that in both for good and poor comprehenders, working memory is better placed at word recognition for excellent readers as opposed to short term memory in word recognition and reading comprehension.

Perfetti (1999) suggest memory span for digits and word tests sandwiched with battery tests of phonological tasks have a linear relationship with regard to reading development. Oakhill, Cain and Bryant (2003b, May) suggests that working memory makes little contribution than phonological skills. Seigneuric, Ehrlich, Oakhill et al (2000:81-103) argue that reading quotients could not be predicted by phonological memory. Seigneuric, Ehrlich, Oakhill et al (2000:81-103) and Perfetti and Hart (2002) have both indicated that phonological memory is a better predictor for poor reading comprehension cases characterized by non word reading10.

Cain and Bryant (2003a; 2003b May) has pointed out that there exists a connection between reading comprehension and working memory. Nation and Snowling (1999) argue that success of reading comprehension is a function of the working memory. Seigneuric, Ehrlich, Oakhill et al (2000:81-103) and Perfetti and Hart (2002) all point out that the process of phonological reading overrides phonological recoding11. Nation, Adams, Bowyer-Crane et al (1999) shows existence of three parameters in their longitudinal studies that differentiate school children suffering mental retardation disorder subject to specific reading retardation as a strategy for improving working memory, phonological segmentation12 and scheming formulas for reading vocabulary.

Nation and Snowling (1999) made similar observation of the three variables13. According to Ericsson and Delaney (1999) phonological awareness and working memory affect reading comprehension acquisition and can be used as early predictors of children who are likely to have poor abilities in reading comprehension.

Read More