Individual Differences and Abnormal Psychology - Essay Example

Individual differences and abnormal psychology 1. Evaluate the effectiveness of psychotherapy (e.g. CBT, milieu therapy) for controlling the symptoms of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that is commonly characterised by symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, disorganized behaviour, speech and impairment of psychosocial functioning. Over the years, Schizophrenia was considered as a chronic, progressive and incapacitating condition however recent studies have confirmed that schizophrenia symptoms can be controlled and managed through interventions such as psychotherapy and medication. Cognitive behavioral therapy is a psychotherapy approach that can be used to control symptoms of schizophrenia (DTB, 2010).CBT focuses on addressing emotional, cognitive and behavioral dysfunctions through systematic and goal-oriented procedures that combine both cognitive and behavioral therapy. CBT procedures that are used in the management of patients with schizophrenia often aim at creating a therapeutic effect by gaining the confidence of the patient, understanding their plight and minimizing the effects of positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. The main components of CBT for schizophrenic patients often include normalization, formulation, the enhancement of coping strategies and reality testing (DTB, 2010). Turkington et al (2006), note that CBT can help patients with schizophrenia to cope through symptom management and adherence. CBT techniques often comprise of development of trust, reality testing, the enhancement of coping strategies and addressing dysfunctional behavioral and affective responses to psychotic symptoms (Turkington et al, 2006). Previous use of CBT in schizophrenic has been mainly focused on controlling delusions and hallucinations. A number of studies show that CBT is used an adjunctive form of therapy in inpatient and residential settings. Some empirical evidence suggests that CBT is effective in treating schizophrenia symptoms such as mood swings, anxiety, depression and other psychotic disorders (Turkington et al, 2006). A number of controlled trials of CBT for schizophrenia have been carried out to provide clinical evidence on the effectiveness of CBT in controlling symptoms related to schizophrenia. A systematic review of 19 random controlled trials was carried out to evaluate the use of CBT an effective adjunct care to schizophrenia. The review involved a total of 1, 998 patients who had been diagnosed with schizophrenia. All the reviewed trials involved behavioral and cognitive interventions that included problem solving strategies, testing and challenging beliefs and the improvement of coping strategies (DTB, 2010).A review of these trials established that in the long run, CBT did not help to reduce relapses or patient readmission to the hospital however, CBT helped to reduce the period or length of admission of schizophrenic patients in hospital. CBT was also associated with the improvement of the mental state of schizophrenic patients nevertheless this improvement was not sustained after one year. A different review evaluated the impacts of hallucination in schizophrenic patients, the review confirmed that CBT can help to minimise the prevalence of hallucination. Generally, these reviews confirmed that CBT can be linked to some reduction of symptoms in schizophrenic patients (DTB, 2010). A different systematic review based on 14 random controlled trials that involved a total of 1,484 patients diagnosed with schizophrenia compared the effectiveness of CBT with other adjunctive treatments. The finds of this review showed that CBT brought about a more significant reduction in symptomatology as compared to other interventions. The findings of this study evidently proved that CBT is a promising method of treating positive symptoms of schizophrenic patients (DTB, 2010).On the other hand Bradshaw (1998) notes that CBT is rarely used in the treatment of severe and persistent symptoms associated with schizophrenia. He observes that there are few application of CBT approaches in the treatment of patients with schizophrenia. There is also little research showing the efficacy of CBT in treating patients with schizophrenia. This neglect may be as a result of decline of psychotherapy or the prevalent use of pharmacological treatment in managing schizophrenia symptoms (Bradshaw, 1998). Although the result of previous studies on the effectiveness of CBT have been inconclusive recent reviews show that CBT is an effective approach of treating psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia (Drake & Lewis, 2005). References Bradshaw, W. (1998). Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Schizophrenia: A Case Study. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Journal, 12, (1) 13-25. Drake, J. & Lewis, W. (2005). Early detection of schizophrenia. Current opinion in psychiatry 18(2): 147-50. Drug and Therapeutic Bulletin (DTB). (2010). Cognitive behavioral therapy for schizophrenia. DTB; 48:6-9. Turkington, D., Dudley, R., Warman, D. & Beck, A. (2006). Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Schizophrenia: A Review. Journal Psychiatric Practice 10:5–16. 2. Describe the three stages of Alzheimer’s disease. Discuss why someone might think their relative had Alzheimer’s disease rather than assume that they were just becoming a bit forgetful. Alzheimer’s disease is a form of dementia commonly found in people over the age of 65 years. This condition progresses slowly and can be identified by loss of memory and finally difficulties in reasoning, perception and language (Berchtold & Cotman, 1998).There are three main stages of the Alzheimer’s disease, they include; the forgetfulness stage, confusional stage and the final stage. The forgetfulness stage is marked by difficulties when it comes to remembering recent events. A patient in this stage may have difficulties remembering what they did or what happened previously, they may also forget the names of people and things around them. Memory problems may cause other problems at work, with regards to work performance, the patient could also end up loosing or misplacing important items. Moreover, during this stage, gradual changes in behaviour and thinking may be witnessed. For instance, the patient may feel disoriented and start becoming careless in there outwards appearance, they could also loose interest in their work hobbies, friends and families. Some patients could become frustrated, depressed, angry and irritable. The forgetfulness stage may last for four or more years (Berchtold & Cotman, 1998). In the confusional stage, the memory, mental and physical capabilities of the patient become weaker. The memory of the patient reduces and the patient may forget their personal history, some patients may fail to recognize or remember their friends and families. During this stage, the patient could experience increased disorientation and confusion thus causing them to require assistance in using the toilet, bathing, dressing and other simple daily tasks. Some patients become restless and they may start to wander thus they require constant supervision. As a result of less involvement in activities the patient may continue to loose interest in their hobbies and other activities that they used to enjoy. It is also possible that the patient could experience communication difficulties, they may find it hard to find the right words to say or describe things (Taler & Phillips, 2008).Over time, the patient show a lack of emotional response to their friends and families, some patient’s continue to feel suspicious, anxious, depressed, angry and mood shifts. The confusional stage is one of the longest stages, it may last for three to ten years (Taler & Phillips, 2008). During the final stage of Alzheimer’s disease, the patient becomes unable to communicate, remember or even look after themselves. This comes as a result of increased loss of memory, cognitive and physical abilities. The patient becomes completely dependent on others since they cannot perform simple tasks such as washing, toileting and feeding. They completely loose the ability to communicate, walk, remember their history, families and friends. They show little emotional expression and become greatly disoriented. At this stage, most patient’s become vulnerable to infections, fractures and other complications. The final stage may last one to three years (Berchtold & Cotman, 1998; Frank, 1994). The early stages of the Alzheimer’s disease are usually difficult to diagnose since the patient appears to be normal. Patients may still be able to go to work, drive and function independently. The affected patient may realise they have problems with their thinking and memory however they may be in denial. Some patients try to hide their illnesses from their relatives and friends by either compensating for their problems or being overly defensive. The symptoms of Alzheimer progress slowly and they may start with mild memory problems. At this point it is possible for one to assume that their relative or friend is just being forgetful since other symptoms progress slowly and cannot be witnessed. However with time, other symptoms such as increased memory loss, depression, confusion, emotional detachment and anxiety among many other symptoms may be witnessed thus confirming the possibility of a patient suffering from the Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer can also be diagnosed clinically by evaluating the history of the patient and the collateral history of his or her relatives. Other clinical ways of diagnosing the Alzheimer’s disease may involve observations that are based on the patient’s behavioral and cognitive conditions (Waldemar, Dubois & Emre et al, 2007). References Berchtold, C. & Cotman, W. (1998). Evolution in the conceptualization of dementia and Alzheimer's disease: Greco-Roman period to the 1960s". Neurobiology of Aging 19 (3): 173–89. Frank, M. (1994). "Effect of Alzheimer's disease on communication function". J S C Med Assoc 90 (9): 417–23. Taler, V. & Phillips, A. (2008). Language performance in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment: a comparative review". Journal of Clinical Experimental Neuropsychology 30 (5): 501–56. Waldemar, G. Dubois, B. Emre M., et al. (2007). "Recommendations for the diagnosis and management of Alzheimer's disease and other disorders associated with dementia: EFNS guideline". European Journal of Neurology 14 (1): e1–26. 3 .Identify and discuss the similarities and the differences between Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa. Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa are eating disorders that come as a result of an intense desire for being thin and an overwhelming fear of being overweight. A key similarity between these two eating disorders revolves around a disturbance in eating behaviour. The two conditions greatly affect one’s physical and mental health thus they can disrupt normal activities, affect relationships and bring about dysfunctional behaviors. Furthermore, both Anorexia and Bulimia contribute to a high risk of suicide amongst those that are affected. Both conditions are treatable using cognitive psychotherapy, which helps both Anorexic and Bulimic patients to change their way of thinking and behaviour (Cash & Deagle, 1997). Despite the fact that the two eating disorders are somewhat similar, there are several differences that can help one to distinguish between Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa. For instance Anorexia Nervosa, tends to occur in mainly in young women between the age of 15 years to 25 years whereas Bulimia Nervosa is prevalent in both young women in their late teens and older women. Moreover, Anorexia Nervosa is based on a person’s refusal to maintain a normal weight. Most people suffering from Anorexia Nervosa tend to have an intense fear of becoming overweight even though they are thin or underweight. Most anorexic women seem to have a negative and false outlook about their body image, size and shape. As a result, they engage in excessive exercise, fasting, dieting and starving themselves in order to prevent themselves from being fat or overweight (Cash & Deagle, 1997).Women who are anorexic often report missing their menstrual period at least for three consecutive months. On the other hand, Bulimia Nervosa is based on a person’s fear of gaining weight. Person’s suffering from this eating disorder, often carry out binge eating, they may lack control over their eating and in most cases they may eat a lot of food beyond their usual capacity. After this the person will try to use various ways of compensating the impact of their binge eating through excessive exercise, using laxatives and self induced vomiting (Cash & Deagle, 1997). Whereas both disorders are based on an obsession with small and thin body, persons suffering from anorexia often show severe weight loss while those suffering from bulimia often maintain a healthy weight. Common symptoms associated with Anorexia Nervosa include; a continuous avoidance for food, ingestion of diet pills, excessive exercises, weighing of food and counting of calories, wearing baggy clothes, thinning hair , dry skin, regular sensations of dizziness, moodiness and depression (Swain, 2006). On the other hand, common symptoms associated with Bulimia Nervosa include; discoloration of teeth, swollen fingers, excessive exercise, puffiness in the face , calluses and cuts in the back of one’s hand and frequent visits to the bathroom after eating so as to purge (Swain, 2006). Both eating disorders can lead to severe health complications, in extreme cases these conditions may lead to death. Bulimia Nervosa is often associated with damages in the digestive system thus affecting the balances of electrolytes this can lead to the damage of other organs. Due to starvation, the bodies of persons with anorexia may experience a slow down when it comes to the preservation energy, this can in turn bring about more serious effects to the body. Health complications commonly associated with Anorexia Nervosa include; anemia, fatigue, depression, discontinuation of menstrual periods, loss of muscle, low blood pressure, reduction of bone density , irregular heart rate that could lead to heart failure and kidney failure due to dehydration(Swain, 2006). On the other hand, health complications commonly associated with Bulimia Nervosa include; stomach pains, constipation, tooth decay as result of stomach acid, damage of the esophagus as a result of regular vomiting, depression, fatigue and irregular heart rate that could lead to heart failure. In most cases the treatment for Anorexia may involve treating psychological issues revolving around inter personal conflicts, self-esteem and depression. Whereas, the treatment of Bulimia involves addressing psychological issues such as anxiety disorders and depression (Swain, 2006). References Cash, T. & Deagle, E. (1997). The nature and extent of body –image disturbances in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: A meta-analysis. International Journal of eating disorders Volume 22, Issue 2, pp 107-126. Swain, P. (2006). Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: new research. New York: Nova Publishers. Read More