Are Changes in Behavior Observed in Token Economies Maintained after the Subject Leaves the Token - Research Paper Example

Token Economies Token Economies Token economy is a form of behavior modification. Here, an environment is created to induce its members to develop or learn certain behaviors, in exchange for tokens. In other words, the tokens are the stimuli for targeted behaviors. After accumulating or collecting a certain number of tokens for learning desirable behavior, the participant can exchange them for an item or activity they desire. The basic aim behind a token economy is to induce desirable behavior and remove any undesirable behavior by means of using tokens. When a person displays the desirable behavior, they are immediately given tokens and they lose tokens when they display undesirable behavior. The larger goal of token economies is to teach and inculcate appropriate behavior and social skills, which is useful to the participant after they are removed from the token economy and move into their natural environment. The token used in the token economy, as such, do not mean anything by itself. It becomes powerful tool to induce learning appropriate behavior, only it is associated with reinforcers. According to Myers in ‘Extinction following partial and continuous primary and secondary reinforcement’, tokens take on the responsibility of being secondary reinforcers. They do this when they are paired with back-up reinforcers that are preferred items or events. For example, in a token economy which used Poker chips as the tokens, these token become appealing to the participants when they are able to get the things they desire after learning desirable behavior. This induces them to adapt in order to earn the poker chips. According to Kazdin A.E, & Bootzin in ‘The Token Economy: An evaluated review’, the basic use of a token is to help bridge the gap between behavior which is required and the reinforcement. Tokens can be given at any time or place, and may be carried anywhere, making it easy to immediately reinforce appropriate behavior. Token economies are used in different kinds of situations such as: Token economies are used in places such as psychiatric hospitals or correctional facilities; for the purpose of mentally stabilize individuals, who have the tendency to behave in an aggressive or unpredictable way. It can be used with children who have developmental or learning disabilities. Token economies are helpful to teach children who are hyperactive, have attention deficit disorder or behavioral disorders. It can be used in addiction treatment programs and in homes in which there are marital or parenting difficulties, to teach desirable behavior to children. It can also be used in a regular school or college environment, various types of group homes, military divisions, nursing homes, and hospitals. Token economies can be implemented for an individual or applied to groups. There are several elements required to implement a token economy. Here a list of what is essentially required to create a token economy: Tokens: Of course, the most obvious thing required in a token economy system is tokens. The token chosen must be appealing and this is a point noted by Philips E L, in his book ‘Achievement Place: Token reinforcement procedures in a home-style rehabilitation setting for "pre-delinquent" boys’. He states that children displayed an eagerness to adopt target behaviors when the back-up reinforces available to them, were similar to items available at home such as snacks and tools and events such as watching television, and riding a bicycle. Poker chips, stickers, point tallies, or play money are what is commonly used as tokens. If a participant learns desirable behavior, he or she immediately gets a certain number of tokens. Tokens can be lost for any undesirable behavior displayed. The token as such contains no value, but are collected in order to be used later to obtain meaningful objects, privileges or activities. Target behavior: This is as important an element, as tokens in a token economy. Target behavior is the expected behavior for which the individual will receive tokens. This must be clearly explained to the individuals participating in a token economy in simple, but specific terms. Information such as the number of tokens awarded or lost for a particular behavior must also be specified. Determining back-up reinforces: Back-up reinforcers are meaningful objects, privileges, or activities that individuals participating in the token economy can gain, in exchange for the tokens they accumulate for desirable behavior learnt. For example, tokens can be exchanged for reinforcers such as food items, toys, extra free time, or outings and so on. The success of a token economy is, depends on the how well it has chosen its back-up reinforcers. In order to achieve this, it is better to make individuals participating in the token economy to choose back-up reinforcers rather than have it chosen by the staff. This is because, individuals will only be motivated to earn tokens only if they can anticipate, what they are going to receive in place of the token collected. Establishing a system for the purpose of exchanging tokens: It is important to establish a time and place for purchasing back-up reinforcers. The number of tokens required to obtain a re-inforcer should be based on the demand or therapeutic value of the behavior or change required. What’s important to understand here is that a token value must not be set too low, otherwise the individual will not feel motivated enough to acquire it . On the other hand, a token value must not be too high either, as it may discourage the participants from participating. The token economy must be devised in such a way that it enables each individual to earn at least some tokens. Setting up a system to record data: This mean establishing a means of gathering information about an individual's current behavior. Any changes in behavior, after getting involved in the token economy, should be recorded on daily data sheets, for the purpose of measuring an individual’s progress, and understanding about the effectiveness of the token economy. Consistent implementation of the token economy: If the token economy system has to be successful, it must be implemented correctly. This means that staff members involved in the program must give rewards for the same behaviors continuously. They must use the appropriate amount of tokens and avoid dispensing back-up reinforcers for free. Steps should be taken to prevent tokens from being duplicated, stolen, or otherwise unjustly obtained. In order to do all this effectively, it is important to lay down staff responsibilities and the rules of the token economy in a manual. Staff members should be evaluated from time-to-time and their opinions and concerns should be heard. The effectiveness of a token economy system can be seen in its use as an instrument to achieve certain behavioral and educational goals desired from children. Following is a list of goal achieved through token economies: Manage delay in gratification – Token economies enable a child to understand about how much more they have to do or learn before they get to do what they really like. It motivates them to delay gratification and work hard to achieve goals before gratifying their desires. Giving a sense of time -- Token economies is particularly useful for children who have no sense of time. It will make them aware, about how much time they have taken to accomplish a task, and how much longer, they will have to remain at the task to complete it. Reduce the sense of satiation – In a token system a set of responses are required from the individual, for them to obtain a primary or a strong secondary reinforcer. By increasing the number of responses, the rate at which the child becomes satiated with a particular form of reinforcement, can be lowered. Teaching rate is increased: Token systems can help the teacher to teach concepts quickly because; they will be rewarding responses with a token. The child is motivated to learn quickly and this enables for speedy, more fluid instructions. More natural reinforcement – A token is a more natural reinforcer. Though in most school settings, teachers are seen to be handing out fruit loops, or passing out bubbles, after every correct answer, if tokens are used in place of such obvious reinforcers, it can be less obtrusive and more natural way of reinforcing desirable behavior in a classroom. Increased selection of reinforcers -- Because reinforcement is being delivered after several responses, than being given after each response possible is to introduce more reinforcing items or activities for reinforcement. For example, rewarding a child, by enabling them to play a video game after giving several correct responses is more rewarding than giving them a reinforment after every correct response. In order to understand how a token economy works here is an example of how to implement it for a particular behavior. Let’s take the environment to be a classroom and the target behavior required is for student to sit in their seat or being quiet during the lessons. The undesirable behavior that needs to be reduced is socializing and wandering around the room. The goal of this token economy is to enable students to achieve what are their desirable behaviors. Before implementing this system, the teacher should at the beginning of the week explain the token economy. This way it can be implemented before the inappropriate behaviors occur and lesson plans have started. The next thing to do is to write on the blackboard or poster board a list of behaviors that is expected from the children. Each behavior must be explained clearly to the child to help them understand what the target behaviors to be achieved are. You should also put down the point value for each target behavior on the blackboard. For example, if a child is ready with materials at the beginning of class then he or she gets two points. If a child is his or her seat during the reading period then one point is awarded and if he or she is quiet during reading then points two. This means that each day every student has the potential to earn up to 5 points in a day, and 25 point in a week. The results must be displayed on chart put up on the classroom wall. It should display each day in the week, the students’ names and check off a point under the appropriate day for each on-task behavior. There should also be a column, showing total points for the end of the week. There should be a reinforcement schedule and at the end of the schedule, the student should be able to “cash in” on the points they have earned as rewards. If a student were to earn four points then he or she would get an eraser and so on. Reward items should be given immediately, and reward activities should be scheduled for the next week. Rewards should also be modified from time–to-time, by taking into consideration what interests the students in order to keep them motivated. The effectiveness of a token economy system can also be seen in the results achieved and the advantages felt through its implementation. For example, if the target behavior is to reduce television viewing in children, this has been achieved by using a token system, as observed by McGinnis and stated in, ‘The effect of token rewards on intrinsic motivation for doing math’ (1999). Following is a list of advantages of a token economy: Tokens are potent reinforcers that enable the participants to make big changes in their behavior. Its been seen that such changes can be maintained, even if the participant is away from the token environment, through praise for appropriate behavior. Tokens fill the gap between responses that are expected and back up reinforcers. Back-up reinforcers sometimes cannot be immediately given after good behavior because it will interrupt the flow and so tokens prove to be more useful. Tokens are backed up by a variety of items and therefore are less subject to satiating. Token administration does not cause any disruption to on-going behavior. Tokens can be accumulated towards really valuable goals. Token economies are however, subject to some risks. Sometime a staff member involved in the program may intentionally or unintentionally not look into the basic rights of the individuals, receiving treatment. There is a possibility of staff members not administering to basic needs, such as proper food, clothing, bedding, or leisure activities. An inadequately trained staff or a shortage of staff situation, may result in desirable behaviors not getting rewarded or undesirable behaviors getting inadvertently rewarded, thereby resulting in an increase of negative behavior. There is also doubt on issues such as placing individuals in treatment against their will, such as in a psychiatric hospital) and deciding on which behaviors are desirable and which are not. However, despite such risks, token economies have proved to be successful in treating people with behavioral problems. However, one issue of primary concern in implementing a token economy is, if the changes in behavior are maintained, after the participant leaves the token economy. As such what has been noted is that changes in behavior observed in token economies have been indeed maintained after the subject leaves the token economy. Any doubts on these can be removed by using techniques which serve to continue changed, behavior after the subject leaves the environment. According to O’Leary,K.D., & Becker W.C (1967) ‘Behavior modification of an adjustment class: A token reinforcement program’, in order to ensure that a subject continues changed behavior, even after leaving the token economy verbal praise for desirable behavior must be used along with the use of tokens, when they participate in the token economy. This is a point which was also emphasized by Locke in ‘Verbal Conditioning with the retarded’. Kazdin and Bootzin in their ‘The token economy: An evaluated review ‘suggested following what is suggested by ‘Allyon and Azrim in ‘The token economy: A motivational system for therapy and rehabilitation’, where only behavior, that can be continued by the participant, after training should be taught such as academic skills or appropriate social behavior. On the whole it’s been found that token economies have been quite effective in removing inappropriate behavior and teaching desirable behavior and gives the advantage of change its procedural components according to the situation, to induce targeted behavior. References Kazdin, A., E., & Bootzin (1972) The token economy: An evaluated review Ayllon, T. & Azrin, N. (1968) The token economy A motivational system for therapy and rehabilitation O’Leary,K.D., & Becker W.C (1967) behavior modification of an adjustment class: A token reinforcement program Myers, N (1960) Extinction following partial and continuous primary and secondary reinforcement Phillips, E. L. (1968). Achievement place: Token reinforcement procedures in a home-style rehabilitation setting for "pre-delinquent" boys McGinnis, J. C., Friman, P. C., & Carlyon, W. D. (1999). The effect of token rewards on "intrinsic" motivation for doing math. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis Locke, B, J. (1969) Verbal conditioning with the retarded Read More

It can be used with children who have developmental or learning disabilities. Token economies are helpful to teach children who are hyperactive, have attention deficit disorder or behavioral disorders. It can be used in addiction treatment programs and in homes in which there are marital or parenting difficulties, to teach desirable behavior to children. It can also be used in a regular school or college environment, various types of group homes, military divisions, nursing homes, and hospitals.

Token economies can be implemented for an individual or applied to groups. There are several elements required to implement a token economy. Here a list of what is essentially required to create a token economy: Tokens: Of course, the most obvious thing required in a token economy system is tokens. The token chosen must be appealing and this is a point noted by Philips E L, in his book ‘Achievement Place: Token reinforcement procedures in a home-style rehabilitation setting for "pre-delinquent" boys’.

He states that children displayed an eagerness to adopt target behaviors when the back-up reinforces available to them, were similar to items available at home such as snacks and tools and events such as watching television, and riding a bicycle. Poker chips, stickers, point tallies, or play money are what is commonly used as tokens. If a participant learns desirable behavior, he or she immediately gets a certain number of tokens. Tokens can be lost for any undesirable behavior displayed. The token as such contains no value, but are collected in order to be used later to obtain meaningful objects, privileges or activities.

Target behavior: This is as important an element, as tokens in a token economy. Target behavior is the expected behavior for which the individual will receive tokens. This must be clearly explained to the individuals participating in a token economy in simple, but specific terms. Information such as the number of tokens awarded or lost for a particular behavior must also be specified. Determining back-up reinforces: Back-up reinforcers are meaningful objects, privileges, or activities that individuals participating in the token economy can gain, in exchange for the tokens they accumulate for desirable behavior learnt.

For example, tokens can be exchanged for reinforcers such as food items, toys, extra free time, or outings and so on. The success of a token economy is, depends on the how well it has chosen its back-up reinforcers. In order to achieve this, it is better to make individuals participating in the token economy to choose back-up reinforcers rather than have it chosen by the staff. This is because, individuals will only be motivated to earn tokens only if they can anticipate, what they are going to receive in place of the token collected.

Establishing a system for the purpose of exchanging tokens: It is important to establish a time and place for purchasing back-up reinforcers. The number of tokens required to obtain a re-inforcer should be based on the demand or therapeutic value of the behavior or change required. What’s important to understand here is that a token value must not be set too low, otherwise the individual will not feel motivated enough to acquire it . On the other hand, a token value must not be too high either, as it may discourage the participants from participating.

The token economy must be devised in such a way that it enables each individual to earn at least some tokens. Setting up a system to record data: This mean establishing a means of gathering information about an individual's current behavior. Any changes in behavior, after getting involved in the token economy, should be recorded on daily data sheets, for the purpose of measuring an individual’s progress, and understanding about the effectiveness of the token economy. Consistent implementation of the token economy: If the token economy system has to be successful, it must be implemented correctly.

This means that staff members involved in the program must give rewards for the same behaviors continuously.

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