Perceived Self-Esteem Effecting Transitions in Mid-Life Intersecting With Gender - Literature review Example

Perceived Self-Esteem Effecting Transitions in Mid-Life Intersecting With Gender School: Researchers have, over the years, explored the debate, on whether self-esteem changes with the normative changes of age. Wylie (1979) through a detailed review of literature arrived at the conclusion that self-esteem does not increase or decrease as the age of a person advances. The importance of exploring and grasping a clear understanding of the effects of age transitions, on levels of self-esteem is very important because the information can improve the interventions aimed at boosting the immunity of women from anxiety and depression (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000), and also increasing their self-esteem, during critical stages of development; women are more vulnerable than men (Orth, Robins, & Trzesniewski, 2010). Some of the stages that are highly impactful, and which can be informed by a clear understanding of the relationship between age and self-esteem include the resolution of health problems; addressing criminal behaviour; in treating women’s vulnerability to depression, and in stimulating the accrual of wealth and in encouraging the increment of achievement levels (Orth et al., 2009). Orth, Robins and Trzesniewski (2010), through a study administered to a nationally representative sample from the US, studying changes in self-esteem from young adulthood through to old age, found that changes in age led to changes in self-esteem, especially among women (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000). The researchers arrived at the conclusions that self-esteem was changed positively during the years of young and middle adulthood, and that the positive change reached its maximum point at the age of 60 years. The self-esteem levels of women remained relatively lower than those of men (Orth, Robins & Trzesniewski, 2010). After the age of 60, levels of self-esteem began to reduce, and the negative change went on to 100 years; during old age, the curves of self-esteem among men and women came to the same level. However, the study made the emphasis that, apart from the progression of age, the speeds of the changes in the self-esteem levels were dependent on other factors. These factors are commonly referred as moderators of self-esteem, and they include gender, education levels and the race of the subjects. From the traditional sense of being unemployed for a long time, the perceived deprivation of a person led to a reduction in their self-esteem; the reduction is related to the reduction in the psychological well-being of the individual (Creed, Bloxsome, & Johnston, 2001). The reduction in the self-esteem levels of unemployed people; reportedly arise from different factors, including their experience of psychological distress, which affects confidence levels, as compared to their employed counterparts. The effects are more acute among women, as they are socialized to undertake a socio-culturally disadvantaged position in society (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000). The evidence collected through a variety of longitudinal studies indicates that it was the personal experience of unemployment that led to the reduction in the feeling of well-being. The situation, sharply, contrasts to that of employed people with lower levels of mental health, after falling victims of unemployment (Bandura, 1997). The adverse effects of being unemployed, which lead to a reduction in the self-esteem of the individual, can be explained using the deprivation model, which maintains that employment, offers both latent and manifest utility. More importantly, long term unemployment leads to a reduction in the self-efficacy of a person in searching for new employment (Eden & Aviram, 1993). In particular, women are more adversely affected by the advancement of age while unemployed; because employment is often the source of support within the society (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000). Unemployment is a major cause for psychological distress, which is likely to reduce the self-esteem and the job search self-efficacy of a woman, especially if she lacks moral support. A woman’s level of self-efficacy in searching for employment is increased by participation in occupational skills training programs, irrespective of whether the programs dealt with the development of self confidence (Creed, Bloxsome, & Johnston, 2001). The ideas explored before imply that association with people or groups that are involved in employment preparation or training programs is very important to women (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000), as it is one of the major forces behind their increment of self-esteem, which boosts their ability to rise from unemployment (Bandura, 1997). Apart from the positive influence of association on self-efficacy in job search, which increases their potential of returning to employment after being unemployed, association shields them from the adverse effects of depression among other mental disorders (Kanojia, 2010). The conclusion from the study of the relationship between age, gender and self-esteem levels, it is conclusive that a person’s level of self-esteem can either limit or quicken their return to employment (Creed, Bloxsome, & Johnston, 2001). Among the women advancing from young adulthood to more advanced ages (particularly the 40s and 50s) remaining out of employment for more than six months or more affects their self-esteem levels negatively. The effects include that they develop the feelings of shame and frustration, partly due to the rejection that comes with the search for employment and the pressure to tap into retirement accounts, so that they can service their living expenses (McKee-Ryan et al., 2005). The adverse psychological effects of the self-perceived disadvantages and the pressures from society, which are more adverse among women, include that a person’s ability to network effectively is lost. The outcome is that they lose their potential of accessing hidden opportunities in the job market among other areas (Paul & Moser, 2009). The long-term effects compound into self-doubt and the inability to counter the pressure of job search, not to talk of changing careers, which is more severe among much older women (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000). Leighman (2009) reported that the female subjects of divorce are adversely affected by divorce in the long term. Women are more deeply affected by divorce, because it leads to the loss of their marriage dreams and their place in family unit, partly because it comes with other losses, including the loss of different valuables. The valuables lost include assets and the home, identity as a married adult, relationship with children and a source of income. In the middle of the crisis caused by divorce, self-esteem plays an important role in determining the speed of recovery, partly because divorce during the mid-life years can imply the probability of staying single afterwards. After experiencing divorce, self-esteem plays an important role in determining the coping mechanisms employed and the resilience of the women (Orth, Robins & Trzesniewski, 2010). The areas that support a woman’s self-esteem include the possession of a profession or job, faith and spirituality, the support of family and friends, dating and social activities. However, noting that the lack of the attributes supporting self-esteem can trigger the lack of self-esteem implies that the experience of divorce is highly influenced by a woman’s levels of self-esteem (Leighman, 2009). In typical, everyday use, self-esteem is used to mean the self-evaluation of personal characteristics; the personal evaluation of worthiness, which is manifest from the attitudes of a person about themselves (Emler, 2001). Scientifically, self-esteem has been defined by different scholars, including Locke, Judge and Durham, as the overall value that an individual attaches to their person. In science, it is often considered a personality trait, which is considerably enduring and stable. The different components of self esteem include that it is an integral human need; it arises from an individual’s consciousness and beliefs, and it occurs in harmony with behaviors, thoughts, actions and feelings (Emler, 2001). The meaning of self-esteem has changed over the years, including that it has been operationalized through the experiences of different individuals; many respondents give feedback depending on aspirations and not the reality of their worth. Also, it is conceptualized differently, across different studies (Emler, 2001). As a result, it has been scaled down to mean an individual’s judgment about their self-worth. Due to the fact that the meaning of self-esteem has been scaled down to the judgment of an individual about themselves, it has been misconceived to encompass the inclinations and the vulnerabilities of women, which are in many cases socialized weaknesses or solidified habits (Emler, 2001). Due to this subjective definition of self-esteem, problems like drug addiction, depression and homelessness have changed from being viewed as solidified habits and socialized lifestyles, but as integral aspects of a woman’s nature. For example, according to the subjective meaning of self-esteem, a female drug addict may define their addiction as a natural disposition for women, when it is in reality, just a dependence on the given substance or drug. In justifying the disposition, they could cite the disadvantages that face women within the society, including career deprivation and domestic violence (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000). Piccinelli & Wilkinson (2000) reported that, in many cases, the morbidity, incidence and the prevalence of depressive disorders are comparatively more among women, as compared to their male counterparts. The factors underlying the higher predisposition of women to depression and depressive disorders include their experience of adverse experiences during childhood and the effects of anxiety and depression-related disorders during childhood and adolescent years (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000). Other factors that increase the vulnerability of women to depression include their adverse sociocultural roles and their general feeling of vulnerability within society. One of the treatment paradigms that have been used successfully is meditation (Kanojia, 2010). Meditation has proved successful for the treatment of anxiety and depression, and it offers the advantages that it is cheap, self-administered and can be done anywhere, which caters for the economic and the mobility deprivation of many women. Apart from addressing the problem of anxiety or depression, meditation also increases the resiliency levels of the mediator, which helps them in combating depression in the future (Kanojia, 2010). This is particularly important for women, taking into account that they are more vulnerable to depression and depressive disorders (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000). References Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. Creed, P., Bloxsome, T., Johnston, K. (2001). Self-esteem and self-efficacy outcomes for unemployed individuals attending occupational skills training programs. Community, Work & Family, 4(3), Eden, D., & Aviram, A. (1993). Self-efficacy training to speed reemployment: Helping people to help themselves. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78 (3), 352-360. Emler, N. (2001). Self-Esteem: The costs and causes of low self-worth. Layerthorpe, YO: York Publishing Services Ltd. Retrieved from: http://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/files/jrf/1859352510.pdf Kanojia, A. (2010). Meditation and depression: a novel solution to the burden of mental illness in India? Resilience: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Science and Humanitarianism, 1, 77- 92. Leighman, M. (2009). Loss of the Dream: Stories of Mid-Life Divorce (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from: Texas A & M University. http://repository.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-2009-12- 7376/LEIGHMAN-DISSERTATION.pdf?sequence=3 McKee-Ryan, F. M., Song, Z., Wanberg, C. R., & Kinicki, A. J. (2005). Psychological and physical well-being during unemployment: A meta-analytic study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(1), 53-76. Orth, U., Robins, R., & Trzesniewski, K. (2010). Self-Esteem Development from Young Adulthood to Old Age: A Cohort-Sequential Longitudinal Study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(4), 645–658. Orth, U., Robins, R. W., Trzesniewski, K. H., Maes, J., & Schmitt, M. (2009). Low self-esteem is a risk factor for depressive symptoms from young adulthood to old age. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118,472–478. Paul, K. I., & Moser, K. (2009). Unemployment impairs mental health: Meta-analyses. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 74(3), 264-282. Piccinelli, M., & Wilkinson, G. (2000). Gender differences in depression: Critical review. Psychiatry, 177, 486-492. Wylie, R. C. (1979). The self-concept. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Read More