Predisposes of Children to Psychological Barriers - Term Paper Example

Children Psychology Aggression infers behaviour, verbal or physical, which may be fashioned to hurt or harm in any manner another person or thing. The approaches to aggression encompass biological and social learning. The four categories of learning theories include behaviourism, cognitive, humanistic, and social learning (Lorenz 2002, p.105). These approaches assert that behaviour is shaped by the environment via learning processes. Classical and operant conditioning are a vital influence on human behaviour and can be vital in suppressing or otherwise entrenching aggressive behaviour. Classical conditioning encompasses form of learning grounded in the association of a stimulus that does not customarily draw a certain response, with another that does elicit the response. The common phenomena in classical conditioning include discrimination, generalization, and extinction. Operant conditioning, on the other hand, is a form of learning whereby the consequences of behaviour affect the likelihood that the behaviour will occur. Operant conditioning can be employed to reduce the propensity to aggressive behaviour (Huber, Bannasch & Brennan 2011, p.2). Social learning theory centres on learning that occurs within the social context. Some of the key concepts in this approach include observational learning, imitation, and modelling. Hence, children may learn aggressive behaviour by observing and imitating the aggressive behaviour displayed in spaces such as mass media. Criticisms of social theory centre on the distinction between Bobo the doll and other children. This arises from the fact that, whereas it may be quick to replicate aggression when the object is a doll, this will be rare if the subject is another child (Chrisler & McCreary 2010, p.56). # 2 A child may behave aggressively or violently if abused whether emotionally, sexually, or physically. Family conditions such as neglect and poverty may also elicit aggression in children arising from frustration. Aggressive behaviour may also be explained by psychodynamics theories. Psychodynamic theories hold that unconscious motives and desires influence behaviours. Similarly, the theories emphasize that people’s behaviour and feelings are anchored in their childhood experiences (Geen & Donnerstein 1998, p.3). In addition, the approach stipulates that every form of behaviour has a cause, mainly unconscious. Personality comprises of three parts; id, ego, and super-ego. The parts of the unconscious mind are continually in opposition with the conscious part of the mind or the ego (Weiten, Dunn & Hammer 2012, p.33). The id pools instinctual energy and infers a person’s biological needs and drives such as hunger, sex, and thirst. The super ego refers to a society’s rules and people’s voice of conscience. The ego, on the other hand, refers to the conscious mind that entails a person’s thoughts, judgments, and memories (Berzoff, Melano, Flanagan & Hertz 2011, p.18). The five factor model of personality encompasses a hierarchical organization of personality traits based on five key dimensions; extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience (Ewen 2003, p.6). Some of the criticisms to psychodynamic theories include the theories not being falsifiable and hence unscientific. Critics also argue that the theories overemphasize and generalize individual events or results (Digman 1990, p.417). # 3 Research has shown a relationship between increases in aggressive attitudes and watching of violent television. Watching violent television desensitizes children to violence and makes them adopt the conviction that the world is a “meaner and scarier.” The American Psychological Association points out three crucial effects of watching violence; children may turn out to be insensitive to the plight of other children, they may also feel anxious of their world around them and lastly, children may be predisposed to behave aggressively (Turner, Hesse, & Peterson-Lewis 1986, p.52). A child’s moral development is in tandem with social, cognitive, physical, and emotional development from infancy to adulthood. The subject matter of social psychology encompasses the moralization of individuals by the society (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman 2010, p.55). It is complex to make a clear distinction between moral developments and the wide area of social development and socialization. Morality refers to a system of beliefs, values, or principles that oversee human behaviour in two main forms; by prescribing positive behaviours that benefit others as well as proscribing pro-social behaviours that harm others (Kulik 2000, p.43). The centrality of morality to a person’s self-identity is a critical factor influencing the strength between moral judgment and moral action. One of phenomenal studies that explicate the linkage between watching violent television and increase in aggressive behaviour is one conducted by Turner, Hesse, and Peterson-Lewis. The studies cantered on long-term effects of television violence. The findings of the study indicated that media violence has an instrumental effect of predisposition to aggressive behaviour. # 4 There are several theories that explain the formation and development of gender roles in children, which range from the influence of nature versus nurture. Social and cultural theories spotlight how adults and peers influence, as well how cultural beliefs and attitudes influence instruction and learning. Biological theories hold that gender roles are shaped by hormones and gene make-up. Genes play a critical role in determining gender differences in terms of chromosomes whereby males and females have different chromosomal composition, which affect behaviour and gender development besides determining sex (Taylor 1996, p.1555). The inner causes of aggression encompass hormones, genetic make-up, and gender differences. Men are predisposed to physical aggression, while females are predisposed to engage in indirect aggression (Hess & Hagen 2006, p.232). The word gender infers cognitive and social differences between males and females. Gender is a learned attribute, as opposed to a biological trait. Sex, on the other hand, refers to biological differences between males and females. Gender typing infers the process through which children acquire gender identity, values, behaviours, and motives perceived as appropriate in their culture for either males or females (Fiske, Gilbert & Lindzey 2011, p.630). Gender roles infer distinctive behaviours that males or females in any culture exhibit and thus, are a reflection of a culture’s gender stereotypes. Gender identity, which is shaped early in life via socialization, refers to perception of oneself as either masculine or feminine (Sigelman & Rider 2012, p. 35). # 5 The various methods of random sampling include simple random, stratified, systematic, cluster, and multi-stage random sampling. Simple random sampling refers to a technique used to select a sample for study from the target population. The selection of each subject is exclusively by chance, whereby every member of the population has the same opportunity of inclusion in the sample. Aggressive behaviour models manifest through family, subcultures, and mass media. The causes of aggression can be categorized into two; biological and social causes. The genetic causes of aggression are influenced by hormones such as testosterone; males have a higher level of testosterone levels and mechanisms such as neuroendocrine influences (Tremblay, Hartup & Archer 2005, p.223). This predisposes the males to delinquency and aggressive behaviour. The frustration-aggression theory holds that frustration shapes the drive for aggression. The alarm of punishment or disapproval leads to aggressive behaviour to be displaced against oneself or some other target. The learning of aggression occurs when children observe rewarded aggressive behaviour. Observational learning occurs when children learn social behaviour by watching and imitating the behaviour of others. Viewing television violence leads to desensitization of the children to violent behaviour, increase in aggressiveness, and mistaken assumptions concerning reality. A punishing stimulus may accelerate or retard performance of aggressive behaviour depending on whether it is delivered in a manner that is compatible or in conflict with the behaviour. Research indicates a strong correlation between physical punishment and the development of aggressive and violent behaviour (Albon 2007, p.16). Nevertheless, some psychologists believe that physical punishment is an effective and useful socialization tool and which can ultimately reduce aggressive behaviour. # 6 Experimental research refers of research designs that employ manipulation and controlled testing to understand causal processes of a certain phenomena. In experimental research, one or more variables (independent variable) are influenced so as to determine their effect on the dependent variable. Experimental research is mostly employed where cause precedes effect, where there is constancy in a causal relationship, and lastly, where the degree of the correlation is phenomenal (Freedman 2003, p.48). Non-experimental research, on the other hand, involves observing, recording, measuring, and analyzing phenomena in its natural environment. Some of the non-experimental approach methods include naturalistic observation, interview, and survey (Goodwin 2010, p.167). Non-experimental approach is employed when it is impossible or otherwise unethical to manipulate the independent variable. Advantages and Disadvantages of experimental research Some of the advantages of experiments are the ability to demonstrate cause and effect relationships. In addition, experimental research enables the researcher to control variables besides gaining insights on methods of instruction. Similarly, the method avails an enhanced transferability via a combination with other methods to attain rigor. However, experimental research is disadvantageous as not all groups are comparable. The results of an experimental research method may also be applicable to certain situations and may be difficult to replicate elsewhere (Goodwin 2010, p.170). Advantages and disadvantages of correlation research Correlation mode of study, where relationships are observed in a natural environment, is also preferred in psychology in measuring interaction between two variables because it is easy to implement. Correlation research allows the researcher to collect a lot of data compared to data that might be collected through experiments (Breakwell, Hammond & Fife-Schaw 2004, p.12). In addition, since correlation research takes place outside laboratory, the results tend to be more applicable to everyday life. Similarly, correlation research opens up research by mapping the strength and direction of a relationship. Some of the disadvantages of correlation research include the fact that the method only uncovers a relationship but does not avail a conclusive reason why the relationship exists. The absence of independent variable complicates efforts to establish causation. References List Albon, A. (2007). Introducing Psychology through research, Berkshire, Open University Press. pp. 16-26. Berzoff, J., Melano, L., Flanagan & Hertz, P. (2011). Inside out and outside in: Psychodynamic clinical theory and psychopathology in contemporary multicultural contexts, Plymouth, Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 18-36. Breakwell, G., Hammond, S. & Fife-Schaw, C. (2004). Research methods in Psychology, London, Sage. pp. 10-25. Chrisler, J. & McCreary, D. (2010). Handbook of gender research in Psychology, New York, Springer. pp.19-70. Digman, J.M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model, Annual Review of Psychology 41, pp.417-440. Ewen, R. (2003). An introduction to theories of personality, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum, Inc. pp.3-6. Fiske, S., Gilbert, D. & Lindzey, G. (2011). Handbook of social psychology, Volume 1, New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons. pp. 630-650. Freedman, J. (2003). Media violence and its effect on aggression: Assessing the scientific evidence, Toronto, University of Toronto Press. pp. 47-52. Geen, R. & Donnerstein, E. (1998). Human aggression: Theories, research, and implications for social policy, London, Academic. pp. 2-15. Goodwin, J. (2010). Research in Psychology: Methods and design, New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons. pp. 167-174. Hess, N. & Hagen, E. (2006). Sex differences in indirect aggression psychological evidence from young adults, Evolution and Human Behaviour 27, pp. 231-245. Huber, R., Bannasch, D. & Brennan, P. (2011). Aggression, London, Academic Press. pp. 2-5. Kulik, L. (2000). Gender identity, sex typing of occupations, and gender role ideology among adolescents: Are they related? International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling 22(1), pp. 43-56. Lorenz, K. (2002). On aggression, London, Routledge. pp. 105-110. Sigelman, C. & Rider, E. (2012). Life-span human development, Belmont, Wadsworth. pp. 32-50. Taylor, M. (1996). The development of children’s beliefs about social and biological aspects of gender differences, Child Development 67, pp. 1555-1571. Tremblay, R., Hartup, W. & Archer, J. (2005). Developmental origins of aggression, New York, Guilford. pp. 223-230. Turner, C., Hesse, B. & Peterson-Lewis, S. (1986). Naturalistic studies of the long-term effects of television violence, Journal of Social Issues 42 (3), pp. 51-73. Weiten, W., Dunn, D. & Hammer, Y. (2012). Psychology applied to modern life: Adjustment in the 21st Century, Belmont, Wadsworth. pp. 33-60. Zastrow, C. & Kirst-Ashman (2010). Understanding human behavior and the social environment, Belmont, Brooks. pp. 50-150. Read More