Motor Inhibition Psychology of Children - Assignment Example

Children Psychology Naturalistic experiments refer to observational studies, which feature observing the subjects at their natural environment. This research method is employed in circumstances in which conducting lab research is unfeasible, unreasonably expensive, or can have an undesired effect on the subject’s behaviour. The difference between a structured observation and naturalistic observation is clear-cut in the sense that naturalistic observation looks at the behaviour as it takes place in the natural environment (Angrosino 2007, p.18). The advantages of naturalistic experimentation include permitting researchers to study aspects that they would be incapable of manipulating in the lab due to ethical concerns. In addition, it aids in reinforcing ecological validity of research. This is occasioned by the fact that lab studies generalize to a large population and manipulate subjects. Naturalistic observations are also cost effective and practical (Angrosino 2007, p.18). Naturalistic experiments complicate and frustrate efforts to verify the precise reasons for behaviour. Similarly, the experimenter is unable to control outside variables (Angrosino 2007, p.19). Unlike randomised controlled studies, the researchers do not possess the capability to assign participants to control groups. Hence, the method cannot explicitly determine causation. Another drawback includes the fact that people may match with the research expectations. The development of nonverbal communication in humans is a contested issue in academics. Some scientists argue that it is inborn while others claim that it is learnt during infancy. As children grow, developmental changes manifest such as in kinesics, gestures, facial expressions, and paralanguage. Children’s speech normally develops at the age of 15 to 24 months. As the baby grows, eye contact between it and the mother becomes a crucial component of communication (Knott 1979, p. 225). Babies express a wide range of emotions or needs through facial expressions. Children also utilize vocalizations and signs to express themselves. Nonverbal communication is crucial in understanding child development. The competence that a child has in nonverbal communication influences pre-speech behaviours. Nonverbal communication plays an essential role in early socialization of children as well as their mental growth. Consequently, some aspects of nonverbal communication form the foundation for children’s attainment and development of linguistic behaviour (Knott 1979, p.226). # 2 Longitudinal research refers to research that probes relationships between various variables. Longitudinal studies can be classified into three categories; panel study, cohort study, and retrospective study (Reiss and Judd 2000, p.3). This technique entails studying a subject over an extended time. A longitudinal study involves the collection of data at the outset of the study and successive collection of data throughout the length of the study. The benefits of this study lie in the fact that researchers have a chance to look at changes over time (Polderman, Gosso, Postuma & Beijsterveldt 2006, p.191). In Psychology, longitudinal study of developmental and lifespan trends is applied in studies relating to language development and intelligence in humans. In addition, it features in studies pertaining comparisons between humans and non-human primates. The preference of a longitudinal study over cross-sectional studies when studying the above topics arises from the fact that it tracks the same individuals (Reiss & Judd 2000, p.6). Innate and reinforcement are theories of language acquisition. Reinforcement theory emphasizes environmental factors while innate approach emphasizes biological determinism. Behaviourist approach to language holds that children learn language the same way they learn other behaviours, which is through imitation, reinforcement, and conventional principles of conditioning. Hence, failure to reinforce vocalizations results to their decline. Therefore, parents can control the correct pronunciation and meaning of words through reinforcement (Weiten 2010, p.32). Innate theories, on the other hand, detest behaviourist approach and hold that language cannot be learnt by imitation. Innate theory holds that children learn and master the rules of language intrinsically as they develop. Innate theory stipulates that humans have an intrinsic propensity to develop language. Linguists and psychologists hold that linguistic skills are uniquely human (Weiten 2010, p.32). Regardless of how rich in language an environment is, primates cannot be able to learn human language. This is because human language is a creative and infinite system and differs from complex and limited signalling systems of animals. Attempts to teach primates human language yield low results, as they cannot master syntax and vocabulary of a four year old child. Conway & Christiansen (2001, p. 546) conclude “Humans outperform non-humans by a wide margin in learning and processing of hierarchically organized sequences. The limitations on primate hierarchical learning limit the development of advanced language abilities.” The speech styles modification by adults when talking to children is vital when talking to children whose responses cannot be sourced. Speech style modification avail a sample speech to children who are learning the language. The speech is undemanding, more redundant, and less confusing than standard adult speech. Thus, the children are able to respond to situational cues (Sachs & Devin 1976, p.81). # 3 A longitudinal study on Intelligence Quotient (IQ) probes relationships between different aspects such as attention problems and working memory. The studies probe change in critical variables over time. Longitudinal studies probe the same subjects from childhood to early adolescence or even adulthood. Longitudinal studies on IQ mostly focus on mental age and IQ (Reiss & Judd 2000, p.7). The definition of intelligence is not clear-cut; the definition varies across disciplines, time, and places. Intelligence refers to a person’s ability to understand their environment, assess it rationally, and structure appropriate response. Mental age refers to an intelligence score articulated from chronological age for which a certain level of performance is standard. The division between an individual’s mental age and the chronological age is multiplied by 100. An IQ test attempts to appraise an individual’s intelligence by employing a set of standardized questions in various subjects such as mathematics, language, and reasoning (Flynn 2007, p.14). The pros and cons of IQ testing An outstanding advantage of IQ tests is its ability of identifying academically gifted children. IQ tests aid in singling out children with exceptional academic potential at a younger age. Similarly, the tests aids in detection of learning disabilities. However, IQ tests perpetuate stereotypes through abuse or misrepresentation of IQ scores. IQ scores vary across racial groups, which precipitates such generalizations as some racial groups being intrinsically intelligent than others (Reiss & Judd 2000, p.8). The tests do not account for differential cultural aspects as well as issues such as malnutrition and poverty. IQ tests also fuelled policy abuses, particularly during the 20th century, such as sterilization and limitation of welfare to individuals thought to sire children with low IQ scores. Longitudinal studies on IQ employ various data collection techniques that are sensitive to change and adaptation. Longitudinal research utilizes survey data collection methods, survey samples, and survey analysis techniques in a longitudinal timeframe. Longitudinal design diverges along six parameters; duration of study, duration between data collection, the number of data collection periods, method of data collection, research objectives and the unit of analysis. The studies also use statistical analysis as a background for interpretation of findings (Reiss & Judd 2000, p.9). # 4 This discussion focuses on Project Head Start studies, which spotlight a comprehensive child development program. The initiative responds to the fact that children from low socioeconomic families usually lag behind their middle class peers due to lower preschool enrolment (Tucker-Drob 2012, p.310). Middle class families have enough money to enrol their children to expensive and high-quality preschools. These schools by default encourage cognitive, emotional, and physical development as well as school readiness. A study carried out by Brooks-Gunn and Schnur (1988) focussing on the outcomes of Head Start Children compared 969 disadvantaged children by grouping them into three categories; Head Start, other preschool, and no preschool. The children had undertaken tests before they commenced their group treatment at the conclusion of the one year program (Brooks-Gunn & Schnur, 1988). The tests featured include Picture Peabody Vocabulary Test conveys an overall IQ score, the Preschool Inventory test appraise school-readiness skills, a Motor Inhibition test appraise the child’s impulsivity, and the eight–block toy sort, which gauge analytical capability (Tucker-Drob 2012, p.311). Findings This study indicated that the Head Start group had bigger gains than both no school and other preschool groups. This was particularly evident in Motor Inhibition test (impulsivity), school readiness skills, and general IQ. Thus, Head Start aids disadvantaged children. Hence, attending Head Start or preschool has positive benefits for children who are at-risk for school failure or those who have no preschool experience. As the study points out, educational achievements are affected by a chain of factors such as motivation, opportunity, background, intelligence, and teaching. Intelligence in this case refers to the totality of cognitive or intellectual capacity indispensable to obtaining knowledge, and usage of that knowledge to unravel problems that have a clear goal and structure. IQ, on the other hand, refers to measurement of that intelligence in relation to mental age and psychological age (Flynn 2007, p.8). # 5 Both environment and heredity play a crucial role in determining what people become in life, especially their personalities and behaviours (Lawrence 1999, p.24). Twin studies derive from unsustainable assumptions such as equal environment. Thus, the studies are culpable to methodological and intrinsic design flaws; twin method is thus doubtful in probing genetic influences. The weakness in the assumption complicates the ability to arrive at meaningful conclusions. Researchers carrying out studies that involve changing the residential environment of deprived children may encounter problems as environment and IQ has a close interplay. Children from lower social classes have low IQ, which can be attributed to the environment. Both cognitive and environmental factors influence the IQ of children especially those who live in poor neighbourhoods (Sternberg & Kaufman 2011, p.299). The problems may include confusion and destabilization within the child arising from change of environment. The home environment as well as family status has a bearing on aspects such as cognition and intelligence, language development, perceptual styles and patterns of intellectual function as well as motivation and inspiration (Sternberg & Kaufman 2011, p.300). Consequently, researchers may be confronted by the problem of mismatch between the child’s developmental competency in aspects such as behavioural, cognitive, and social demands. Researchers should avoid the onset of maladaptive developmental outcome. They should adopt a comprehensive approach that accommodates causal linkages between risk factors (Holmbeck, Bruno & Jandasek 2006, p.995). The researchers should also use longitudinal methodologies that assess family and child functioning within the family setting. Other remedies to the problems include behavioural treatment, having community-like settings, and building positive relationships with the child. Researchers should appreciate the role of environment in shaping human behavioural traits. # 6 Theories of cognitive development endeavour to clarify the quantitative and qualitative intellectual abilities that feature along as the child grows. Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a Swiss biologist who moved into the study of children’s intellectual development of understanding. Piaget’s views on how children minds work and develop have been immensely influential in educational theory. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development avails insights into the role of maturation and children’s growing capacity to understand their world. Piaget proposed that children’s cognitive development is not entirely uniform. He suggested points at which it takes off and ventures into fresh areas and capabilities. He pinpointed universal transitions taking place at about 18 months, 7 years, and 11/12 years. This highlights the fact that, prior to each transition, the child is incapable of understanding certain aspects (Sigelman & Rider 2012, p.50). The transition from one stage to the other materialized when the child acquires appropriate maturation and exposure to related types of experiences. Piaget’s thoughts have been crucial in setting curriculum for the educational system. Children at the age of eight are in the stage of concrete operational, which spans roughly from 7 years to 11/12 years. At this stage, the child obtains enhanced cognitive skills and thinks logically concerning objects and events in areas such as conservation of numbers, mass, and weight. The child is also able to classify objects according to various features and can as well order objects in a series along a distinct dimension such as size or colour. They are also able to engage in contextualized logical thought (Sigelman & Rider 2012, p.51). Piaget’s research methods have come under criticisms due to the methodology that he utilized. This is because he used basic question and answer techniques as well as statistical analysis of results. Critics attest the lack of harmonization in questions and weak customization to the individual. His ideas about egocentrism have also been criticised since they confused the child. Egocentrism in this case refers to children’s language that attributes all phenomena with the identical feelings and intentions as their own (Levine & Munsch 2010, p.48). Piaget has also been accused of underestimating children’s abilities. References List Angrosino, M. (2007). Naturalistic Observation, California, Left Coast Press. pp. 18-34. Brooks-Gunn, L. & Schnur, M. (1988). Does Head Start work? A 1-year follow-up comparison of disadvantaged children attending Head Start, no preschool and preschool programs, London, Guilford Press. Conway, C. & Christiansen, M. (2001). Sequential learning in non-human primates, Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5(12), pp.539-546. Flynn, R. (2007). What is intelligence?: Beyond the Flynn effect, New York, Cambridge University Press. pp. 8-15. Holmbeck, N., Bruno, F., & Jandasek, B. (2006). Longitudinal Research in pediatric Psychology: An introduction to the special issue, Journal of Pediatric Psychology 31(10), pp. 995-1001. Knott, G. (1979). Nonverbal communication during early childhood, Communication with Young Children 18(4), pp. 226-233. Lawrence, W. (1999). Twins: And what they tell us about who we are, New York, John Wiley & Sons. pp. 24-25. Levine, L. & Munsch, J. (2010). Child development: An active learning approach, London, Sage. pp. 47-48. Polderman, T., Gosso, F., Postuma, D., & Beijsterveldt, T. (2006). A longitudinal twin study on IQ, executive functioning, and attention problems during childhood and early adolescence, Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 106(1), pp.191-207. Reiss, H. & Judd, C. (2000). Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. pp.3-7. Sachs, J. & Devin, J. (1976). Young children’s use of age-appropriate speech styles in social interaction and role playing, Journal of Child Language 3(1), pp. 81-98. Sigelman, C. & Rider, E. (2012). Life-span human development, Belmont, Wadsworth. pp.46-51. Sternberg, R. & Kaufman, B. (2011). The Cambridge handbook of intelligence, New York, Cambridge University Press. pp.297-301. Tucker-Drob, E. (2012). Preschools reduce early academic-achievement gaps: A longitudinal twin approach, Psychological science 23(3), pp. 310-319. Weiten, W. (2010) Psychology: Themes and variations, Belmont, Wadsworth. pp.325-326. Read More