A Theory of Human Motivation - Article Example

A Theory of Human Motivation The article entitled A Theory of Motivation written by Abraham H. Maslow initially began with a brief summary of a previous paper, also written by Maslow in 1943, with the same title. The author enumerated thirteen conclusions to the previous paper on his theory of human motivation with underlying frameworks focusing on the integrated wholeness of the organism manifesting human needs arranged in a hierarchy of prepotency as the driving force for motivation. As Maslow averred, the present paper aimed to “formulate a positive theory of motivation which will satisfy these theoretical demands and at the same time conform to the known facts; clinical and observational, as well as experimental” (Maslow, n.d., 148). People have a variety of needs; and needs manifest themselves in many forms. Maslow placed human needs in a hierarchy of relative prepotency. In this scheme, there are lower-order and higher-order needs. The lower-order needs are prepotent in the sense that they highly determine behavior until they are satisfied. Once sastisfied, they cease to act as motivators. That is when the higher-order needs are activated and they in turn organize behavior until they, too, are gratified. Maslow identified five basic human needs and arranged them in ascending order, to wit: (1) physiological needs (basic needs for survival, such as food, water, sleep, and air); (2) safety and security needs (needs to be free from physical and psychological harm, threat and deprivation); (3) love and social needs (needs for love, affection, and affiliation as well as the need to belong); (4) esteem and status needs (desires for self-respect, self-esteem, and for the esteem of others); and (5) self-actualization of self-fulfillment needs (desires to realize one’s potential, to become everything that one is capable of becoming). From one culture to another, the same needs may exist but in different intensities and in a different hierarchy. That need characteristics can differ between cultures and indeed among individuals within the same culture should not be overlooked by a manager. Motivation is also situational. Both individual and cultural differences are contingent factors that managers should pay attention to. The value of Maslow’s theory of motivation to the executive and to practitioners of organizational behavior in contemporary times lies in the insight that the concept of marginal utility applies also to human needs. Human needs are not absolute. The more one need is satisfied, the less its satisfaction matters. As the need for economic rewards becomes satisfied, it becomes less satisfying to obtain more of the same. This implies that, at some point, the provision of additional rewards for the satisfaction of any one particular need, regardless of hierarchical configuration, may no longer bring about corresponding increases in productivity. Thus, for individuals who are already receiving substantial financial rewards, an increase in pay may no longer be motivating. What they may need is challenging work, growth, responsibility, or autonomy, among others. The basic similarity with Maslow’s theory of motivation and that of Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Model (Existence, Relatedness and Growth Needs Model) and Frederick Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory stems from the fact that all of them point to human needs as the main, though certainly not the sole, determinants of behavior. Herzberg’s hygiene factors can be related to Maslow’s physiological, safety, and social needs, as well as to Alderfer’s existence and relatedness needs. On the other hand, the motivational factors can be related to status, self-actualization, and growth needs. However, there are important differences as well. Human needs are not seen as operating in the same way. While Maslow’s theory suggests that all needs are motivators so long as they remain unsatisfied, in Herzberg’s scheme, only the higher-order needs are motivators. In applying Maslow’s theory of motivation in the organizational setting, the manager should assess the need level at which a particular employee is in, as well as the actual job conditions at the time. Concentration on lower-order needs is essential to establish the proper job context. The lower-order needs will have to be satisfied first. Assuming that salaries, benefits, and tenure are subsequently reasonably satisfied, then, they will cease to act as effective motivators. In other words, there comes a point where even as pay and benefits are increased further, the manager can only expect diminishing returns in terms of human performance. A proper job content is necessary, for without it, workers can become disenchanted and restless, but it is not sufficient. To obtain superior performance, the manager then addresses the higher-order needs such as esteem and self-actualization. He concentrates on job content. That means that the job itself must provide opportunity for achievement and psychological growth. The motivators involved here are work that is inherently satisfying, achievement, recognition, responsibility, professional advancement, and growth in task capability. At this point, the techniques of job enrichment will be useful to the manager. The application of Maslow’s theory of motivation requires an accurate assessment of individual needs. This would, however, be almost impossible to do in some instances where the individual himself is not aware even of his own needs. Moreover, the manager considers not only personal needs but organizational needs as well. He acts to make those needs congruent. Reference Maslow, A.H. (year). “A Theory of Human Motivation.” Chapter 2: Motivation. _________________, ______________________. Women and Power The article written by Janet O. Hagberg entitled Woman and Power presents relevant issues pertaining to personal power awakened and realized by women. The author discussed the following areas in detail: the paradox for woman, the masculine – feminine dichotomies, the three groups of emerging women, the power model in organizations were women are seen to be an active part of, and women as natural leaders. Hagberg initially explained the paradox for woman as revealed by Carolyn Heilbrun in her 1973 book entitled Re-inventing Womanhood. As detailed by Heilbrun, there were three factors which contributed to the failure of women to maintain momentum in their achievements: (1) the failure to bond; (2) the failure to see themselves as autonomous; and (3) the failure to resist entering the male mainstream and become honorary men. Hagberg suggested measures to enforce women’s true identity by balancing both feminine and masculine manifestations of strength and weaknesses and finding out “who you are rather than who you thought you should be” (Hagberg, n.d., 395). The concept of masculine – feminine dichotomies was clarified by emphasizing that by developing the concept of behavior flexibility, both men and women learn to use either masculine or feminine behavior depending on the appropriateness of the situation. The behavior flexibility concept was more clearly described by the term “androgyny” which means “harmonious coexistence of masculinity and femininity within the same individual” (Singer, 1977). Hagberg reassured women that it is perfectly normal to express masculine behavior like shouting, and men can cry to express emotions, and manifest wisdom in the situation. There are three groups of emerging women, as explained by Hagberg, as follows: (1) the ambitious career women, characterized to be born in the period from the mid-thirties to the mid-sixties, actively involved in an organization and are not living the traditional homemaker lifestyle; (2) the young pacesetters are women in their late twenties to early thirties who are highly educated and determined to succeed; and (3) the women in poverty who were identified as single heads of households, uneducated and unskilled. These emerging women were classified to exemplify that regardless of age, the critical issues that women face are summed into: staying true to their inner selves, finding courage to face their inner secrets and demons, acknowledging strengths from female affiliations, developing leadership skills, and gaining a foothold in resisting victimization and poverty. A discussion of the power model in organizations identified six stages, in ascending stage levels, to wit: powerlessness, power by association, power by achievement, power by reflection, power by purpose, and power by wisdom. The challenges, trials, and dependence on others start to decrease as women start to enter a higher stage. On the other hand, the level of comforts and rewards likewise increase as women learn and realize the fruits of their labor. Finally, the concept of leadership was discussed as a necessary and natural process in women’s ascending to the various stages of power in the organization. Hagberg emphasized the need to meet with other women who belong to the higher stages of the power model to reaffirm the capabilities of leadership in contemporary times. The diverse roles of men and women have evolved from traditional stereotyped beliefs. Not so long ago, many girls and boys were brought up almost as if they were members of different species. Males were expected to grow to be breadwinners, prosper in their work, and to take active part in community affairs. By contrast, females were expected to take subordinate roles. So much as changed in this century that today’s young people are often astonished by some of the male-female stereotypes that were accepted in the past. As Kimmel (1996, 154) averred, “women’s studies has made gender visible”. By highlighting the significant experiences and contributions that women have undertaken through time, the value of gender studies is enhanced with women taking the center stage. The challenges and historical landmarks led and promoted by women have intensified women’s studies to include issues and concerns on the right to vote, increasing opportunities to avail of legal, educational and political rights, taking into account multicultural diversity, and enjoying employment privileges. Women’s studies provided the impetus for a deeper understanding of the relevant roles that women assumed in the previously male dominate world. The experiences and theoretical concepts, as well as contemporary applications of issues learned about women and power are relevant in terms of enlightening and expanding one’s perspectives in women’s experiences globally. Contemporary women have more roles to assume, not only in one are particular nuclear family, but have been extended in the community, the workplace, the political arena, and in international spheres. The strength and character of women have been manifested by Hagberg in her discussion of power and leadership of women who resisted traditional boundaries and barriers for self-expression. The need to be heard, the need to actively participate, the need to lead and to critically analyze information have all been fought for to be acknowledged as a relevant gender and a productive member of society. The right of men should equilaterally be availed by women, who have consistently and continuously proven that beyond the fragile physique lies a heart of stone, a courageous character, a moral virtue, and a loving spouse, mother, daughter, friend, employee, and a vast array of diverse roles, that are all possible as shown in women and power. References Hagberg, J.O. (year).“Women and Power.” Chapter 5: Power and Influence. _______________, ___________________________. Heilbrun, C. (1979) Reinventing Womanhood. W.W. Norton Co., New York. Singer, J. (1977). Androgyny. 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