Personality, Teams and Groups - Assignment Example

Organization Behavior Q1. Describe Trait theory and its relevance Trait theory presumes that traits are heritable among individuals, and that there are different traits for different personalities. For example, there are particular traits that are believed to be associated with leadership. According to Bouchard (2004), traits are the regular patterns of behavior, thinking and sensation. They are thought to have an impact on the behavior of individuals. The theory postulates that traits vary between individuals and that they can be fairly constant over time. It explains the differences such as shyness, sociability among individuals and aggressiveness among other traits. Allport (1931 qd. In Pettigrew, 1999) argued that among the central traits, there is a principle trait that overrides all the others, which shapes the behavior of individuals. However, he also argued that such traits are not common in many individuals due to the fact that people lack a distinct principle that determines their lives. Allport also described the secondary traits, which he defined as the marginal characteristics that only occur at particular circumstances such as attitude towards certain issues that may only be understood by a close associate (Pettigrew, 1999). However, they are significant in describing the whole image of human complexity. Allport's trait theory is based on the hypotheses that human behavior is controlled by the internal and external environment. According to him, genotypes act as the internal compulsions of human behavior. They are associated with human genetics and are heritable in individuals. They are related to the genetic information within individuals inherited from parents. These forces control the manner in which the individual relates with the living environment. On the other hand, the external influences are the phenotypes. Other individuals affect the behavior of a person. The behavior is a form of reaction to the environmental forces. The two forces influence the way individuals think and act; hence they are the basis of human behavior and the development of individual traits (HJelle & Ziegler, 1992). In essence, individuals exposed to a particular living environment are influenced by similar phenotypes and therefore they are likely to possess traits that are closely related. This is confirmed by the common traits that are present within a particular society. Since childhood, most individuals are exposed to a particular lifestyle that acts as phenotype thereby shaping the way they think and behave. The differences in the traits of individuals within a particular society may be associated with the individual genotype (Carver & Scheier, 2000). The trait theory is relevant in studying human personality. Personality is found to be dependent on the central traits, which are the basic traits that to some extent appear in every individual. This means that all humans have particular traits that are common to all persons, which are fundamental to their behavior. Strong leaders are viewed as having a combination of different traits. The theory is significant in studying leadership behavior among individuals and can be used in organizations as the basis for selecting people to occupy leadership positions. Moreover, the theory can be used to determine the appropriate ways to model the behavior of youngsters especially through regulating the phenotype or their living environment. Q2. What is personality? Why is the study of personality important in organizational behavior? Describe trait/psychodynamic and socio- cultural approaches to personality  Personality is a term that represents the typical patterns of personal judgment, mind-set and actions that generate uniqueness in an individual. It emanates from the individual and remains relatively consistent in his entire life. Principally, personality involves efforts by an individual to capture the attributes that make him/her what he actually is. It is forms the basics of understanding and giving a precise description of people. People possess different personalities even when they are identical twins. In essence, there must be certain characteristics that can help in distinguishing between individuals. Some people are more aggressive than others while some are more confident than others. Personality is based on these differences, which on the other hand are identified through certain aspects such as consistency, emotional and physiological factors, consequential behaviors and actions as well as varied expressions. It determines the success of leadership in organizations as well as the interpersonal relationships that are significant in group development (Carver & White, 1994). The study of personality is significant in organizational behavior due to the fact that the aspects of personality influence the workplace relations especially depending on the interpretations of the characteristics that members of an organization exhibit, be it leaders or the subordinates. The wrong interpretations of personality may generate anxiety and unwarranted tensions in the organization. The conflicts that occur in organizations are attributed to personality problems. They are the fundamental causes of employee discontent and high turnover. Strong employee relations can not be accomplished when the management exerts undue pressure on the employees, which may arouse antagonism and anger among the subordinates. Some of the members of the management team may also demonstrate personality characteristics that generate satisfaction and contentment among employees. Encouraging behavior towards the employees motivates them to improve performance and hence more productive. In essence, the study of personality is the basis for understanding the factors that affect organizational behavior. It provides the management with essential information as regards development of strategic motivational techniques for employees (Roberts et al. 2004). In the trait approach, personality is regarded a product of inborn characteristics that influence an individual’s behavior. On the other hand, the external environment in which an individual lives is also linked to his/her behavior. The theory is significant in personality studies. The theory postulates that the personality of individuals is based on a wide range of dispositions. For example, while explaining the personality of a person known well to someone, it is most likely that characteristics such as sociable, compassionate and calm are used. This is an indication that personality can not simply be described through a single characteristic. An individual can be described with a long list of characteristics, which are different from those that can be used to describe any other person (Schultz & Schultz, 1994). The theory tends to highlight the extent of the differences that exist between individuals. Some people tend to exhibit characteristics that are closely related to others but all in all they are always different. The psychodynamic approach to personality is based on the assumptions made by Sigmund Freud in his works on psychoanalysis. He postulated that the unconscious mind as a major factor that controls the human behavior. This is the mind that holds feelings, attitude, desires as well as recollections that are far from consciousness. The unconscious mind generates feelings of embarrassment, disagreement and nervousness among other unpleasant aspects. It consistently influences behavior as well as human experience though people remain uninformed regarding the fundamental influences. The ego is the basically unconscious component of personality that links the demands of the other elements of the human mind, i. e. the Id and the superego to certainty. It stops people from taking action on their fundamental urges generated by the Id. However, the ego helps to accomplish a balance with the standards generated by the superego. The Id is significant in the satisfaction of the fundamental urges and desires. On the other hand, the superego is the element of personality that consists of people’s internalized principles that are inborn or have been attained from the society in which an individual lives. It usually helps to generate moral behavior instead of being realistic (Barenbaum, 1997). The social cultural approach is based on the mental processes and the behavior of humans, which are influenced by external factors such as culture, traditions, and other forces that emanate from the living environment. It leads to the two basic social aspects of personality, which are; individualism and collectivism. Individualistic personalities tend to establish personal identity as the basis for self definition and also prioritize on personal goals. On the other hand, collectivism is based on groups. Individuals view themselves as part of a group. They prioritize on shared objectives. The social relationship determines completeness and success of the group (Herbert, 1997). Q3. Discuss different ways of modeling decision making? Explain some influential ideas about groups and Teams.  The rational decision making models involves the application of cognitive abilities to judge the advantages and disadvantages of various available alternatives. The decision maker selects the most reasonable and wise alternative to generate the desired results. It takes time to acquire substantial information to be used in evaluating the alternatives. The Vroom-jago model is significant in modeling decisions regarding involvement of subordinates in the decision making process. The seven step decision making model on the other hand is significant for individuals who would like to select the career to pursue. The decision is based on the available information to identify the alternatives (Morris, 2002). Information regarding the alternatives is used to determine the best amongst all. Intuitive decision making models are sometimes regarded as improbable chances, providential deductions, or some rituals. The model is regarded as fundamental in decision making whereby if it is not applied, there is a high possibility of failure. The recognition primed decision making model is also significant in cases where people depend on a particular hint to recognize a sequence. The acquisition of these hints depends on personal experiences, i. e, they increase with experience. The decision is reached after an evaluation of various choices depending on hints. The more the encounter with different issues, the more the individual acquires knowledge regarding the different patterns. The ultimate model helps in the quick understanding and assimilation of the information that is available in particular circumstances, evaluate all the knowledge and previous encounters, which allows the individual to quickly and effortlessly settle on a particular decision with the conviction that the right decision has been made (Keyton, 2004). Likert established four leadership styles that are significant in influencing groups and teams to accomplish organizational goals. These include; exploitive and benevolent authoritative styles, consultative and participative styles (Kouzes & Posner 2007 p 58). Benevolent authoritative style is a significant approach to leadership that is focused on maintaining high commitment through generating enthusiasm and interest. Rewards are used as a means for encouraging effective performance. By putting the desires of colleagues in to consideration, there is a high possibility of generating satisfaction among them and hence they can easily be influenced to undertake tasks effectively. Consultative style involves the down-up decision making. The new colleagues are involved in the decision making process whereby they raise issues regarding the manner in which they would like to undertake their tasks, which generates satisfaction and the willingness to accomplish goals. Participative style involves participating with colleagues in performing their tasks. This style is encouraging and it is possible to influence them to accomplish tasks especially due to the leader’s participation. Q4. Discuss a detailed framework for cultural analysis in organizations.  Once the organization has been selected, it is important to prepare for data collection. Before the actual visit to the organization, it is important to find information regarding the organization from any available sources such as the organization’s website, news letter, or any other advertisement materials that can provide information regarding the organization. Information regarding related industries can also serve as a guide in developing the appropriate questions for the interviews. The analyst should acclimatize with the environment by understanding its design and the manner in which operations are physically organized. Interviews are done after acquiring a representative sample. The analyst should use open ended questions to enhance the responsiveness and also acquire a wide range of information (Keyton, 2004). One of the most important aspects of cultural analysis is to understand how people are thought to be. They may be perceived positively or negatively by outsiders. For example, they might be viewed as hardworking or lazy, trusted or unreliable, good to clients or hostile and many such characteristics. They give a pointer to the analyst in regard to what he/she should be expecting. However, these predetermined characteristics should not be used as the basis of determining the organizational culture. The analyst should also try to understand the worker’s perception regarding their work. Some questions should be structured to help in acquiring information regarding employee satisfaction and the motivational strategies applied by the organization. The employees as well as the workers can provide information that the analyst can use to determine whether priority is for work or employees (Hoe, 2003).  An effective cultural analysis will also require information on the perception of the members of the organization regarding time. It is important to know the understanding of employees regarding the history of the organization. Where time is valued, organizational history is clearly understood. Employees also have a vision for the future, and employees are focused on the long-run rather than the short-run. In general, the analyst should evaluate the employees’ perception regarding history, present and the future. It is also important to acquire information regarding awareness in regard to approaching and dealing with risks, such as inventive products that have not been tried in the market, as well as how the members react to changes in the organization’s management. The level of inventiveness and the desire to experiment highlights significant aspects of culture (Morris, 2002). Strategies for resolving workplace conflicts as well as maintaining harmonious relations are important in cultural analysis. This information should be collected as well as the employees’ capacity to avoid conflicts. The organizational structure is also an indicator of the style of control which has an impact on organizational culture (Pettigrew, 1999). For example, information regarding the hierarchical control helps in understanding the decision making patterns of the organization and the employees’ role in the process. It serves as an indicator of the level of empowerment among employees as well as flexibility in the organization. Understanding the management approach also signifies the organization’s ability to cope with changes in the operating environment. The analyst should therefore obtain information regarding the workers perception regarding empowerment as well as the management’s willingness to share responsibilities among the employees. Q5. Using examples describe and illustrate Grint’s four approaches to studying leadership.  The power of influence is one of the approaches that were identified by Grint. He postulated that effective leadership can be understood through the extent and nature of power that the leader holds. The approach is mainly concerned with the manner in which a leader acquires power, the circumstances under which he/she loses the power as well as how the power can be sustained. This approach focuses on the influence of particular individuals in a social relationship over others thereby compelling them to undertake a particular task, which they would not do if it was left for their discretion to decide on the right thing to do. Directional leadership is one of the influential techniques that are mainly adopted by leaders who work with subordinates whose competency and commitment are of a low level. Employees in such a case are usually unable to accomplish tasks or may have the capability but are unwilling to use their knowledge to perform tasks effectively. Under such circumstances, the leader may be compelled to adopt a directive style whereby he/she sets targets and directs the employees on what to do, how to do it and the time to be taken for the accomplishment of these tasks (Hersey & Blanchard, 1999). Power has to be maintained if the leader is to continue being influential to the subordinates. The behavior approach is concerned with the manner in which leaders accomplish their tasks. Their conduct, their day to day tasks as well as their behavior are the basis of evaluating their leadership. The approach focuses mainly on the ability of leaders to undertake their tasks while maintaining strong rapport with the subordinates, which is acquired through demonstrating understanding their needs. The leader is viewed as a supportive planner who guides followers that are committed to their tasks but may be weak in accomplishing tasks. Such leaders motivate the followers to discover their potential and their actions are significant in maintaining leadership excellence. They are studied through studying their behavior and the manner in which they treat their subordinates (Herbert, 1997). The trait approach is based on the individual characteristics of leaders to determine their competence. Certain characteristics such as being liveliness, originality, compassion, foresight or aggressiveness among other traits are used to study leadership style in this approach. In the political sphere, the trait approach is highly applied to determine the desired leaders. The situational approach is the fourth, which is based on the factors within the environment that the leader operates. Leadership is influenced by factors such as peers, higher authorities or subordinates. The approach is also regarded as contingency theory which postulates that the leader various situations determine the capacity of the leader (Hoe, 2003). For example, the subordinates might be committed to their tasks making leadership possible. On the other hand, the leader may be presented with sufficient resources that enable him/her to perform, which would otherwise not be accomplished devoid of resources. In essence, it is the prevailing circumstances that enhance or hamper leadership. They can combine with individual traits to determine leadership qualities in a person. Q6. Outline the most popular and influential accounts of personality. Which, if any, is best for studying at work?  The accounts of identity are important in providing information that helps in understanding the uniqueness of individuals that makes them what they are and remain that way regardless of the changes that may be occurring. The psychological account is based on the premise that individuals have self awareness even without observing their image in a mirror. Individuals are believed to have some of their characteristics remain for continuity to be accomplished. For example, memory, values, wishes as well as natural traits have to be continuous without drastic changes for personality to be upheld and for the individual to continue being what he/she is. However, there can be some changes but they should not be severe. In any case, memory is significant in self identity. Without recalling personal encounters, actions and experiences, he/she can not understand who he/she is (King & Smith, 2004). The behavioral account presumes that the day to day interactions between an individual and the environment are significant in molding personality. The explanation of personality is based on the behaviors that are visible and quantifiable. The inner feelings and beliefs are disregarded in this account. Personality is viewed as a combination of the behaviors of an individual that are influenced by the environment for example the day to day interactions with other people as well as the inherited behavior. The behavior can be learned to result in a particular personality (Bradberry, 2007). The psychodynamic account is based on the grounds of the unconscious mind as well as childhood encounters and the manner in which they influence personality. The unconscious mind according to Sigmund Freud comprises of “the ego, the Id and the superego”. The Id is the element that is concerned with the requirements and the desires of an individual. On the other hand, Freud argued that the superego is behind personal principles and ethics. According to the Erickson’s stages of psychosocial development, personality is a progressive phenomenon that occurs through various stages. In every stage, there emerge conflicts whereby an individual has to overcome the conflicts for him to be successful at any particular stage. The humanist account highlights personality as a derivative of free will and personal understanding. Individuals seek self actualization, which is necessary for individual development and also acts as a motivator for behavioral change. It is usually among the needs that are at the top of Maslow’s hierarchy (Barbara, 2006). The psychodynamic account is the best for studying at work since its assumptions are focused on an individual’s memories. The person can not be transformed in to something different since the memories remain in the brain. Unless the brain is transferred between individuals, their memories shape their behavior thereby making them what they are. The values and desires of individuals, which are significant determinants of personality, are based on their memories. Moreover, the environmental forces influence an individual’s memory and therefore the best way of explaining personality is the use of the psychological account (Bradberry, 2007). In other words, since memory is inherent in an individual and may not be changed unless under unavoidable circumstances, it is a highly reliable determinant of personality compared to the other accounts that are mainly based on assumptions. Q7. Explain the concepts of Taylorism and Fordism? Discuss the Differences between Taylorism and Fordism? Explain which is more suitable from B2B context in your opinion? Tylorism, also referred to as scientific management is the practice whereby the managers are mainly focused on productivity of employees and the smooth flow of the work processes. It is focused on how to increase efficiency in production, reducing wastage of time and resources and application of empirical techniques in decision making rather than involving the employees in making critical decisions. The organization’s personnel are provided with a working framework which has to be adhered to otherwise the organizational operations will be disrupted. The workers are assigned tasks and also follow procedures that have been developed by the managers depending on their observations on the employees’ performance in the workplace. The practice is characterized by a high level of control of the human resources and the manner in which they undertake their organizational tasks regardless of their job satisfaction (Robbins, 2004). The method of performing each job in Tylorism is definite and standard. Workers are not allowed to introduce new ideas in the workplace. The method leaves no room for creativity or problem solving in the workplace. Workers do not brainstorm to establish the best way to approach tasks. Division of labor is clearly defined through the working structure whereby the employees are assigned particular tasks with performance targets. Each of them strives to accomplish the targets or else be considered unproductive. Therefore, the more the out put, the likely it is for the employees to be dissatisfied (Herbert, 1997). Fordism on the other hand is a system whereby production undergoes various stages until the final product is accomplished. It is a system in which production goes through a process similar to the conveyor belt system. The output of production is standardized to maintain a high demand for the product. Fordism is focused on production of large quantities of products through the assembly line and offering them at low prices to willing consumers. The approach is focused on mechanization of the production process, which takes place of the conventional strategies of production. It also involves constant advertisements to ensure that consumers are aware of the product. Credit facilities are used to increase capital for high production. The workers are given high compensation that was dependent on the amount of work, meaning that the more the work the more the wages. The workplace is characterized by spatial distribution of labor. In the 20th century, it was associated with deskilling of work, increased bureaucracy and homogenization of labor so that product standardization could be accomplished (Ian, 2007). On a B2B context, Fordism is more suitable since the strategies applied are focused on maintaining accomplishing high production of competitive products due to standardization. On the other hand, the division of labor makes it possible for specialization to occur thereby increasing the quality of products. The employees utilize their maximum potential to earn high wages. However, it does not apply with the weakness of deskilling work. The highly mechanized production and division of labor tends to reduce the employees in to machine like beings, which may eventually result in dissatisfaction (Schein, 2000). References Barbara, E. 2006. Personality Theories. Houghton Mifflin. Barenbaum, N. B. (1997). The case(s) of Gordon Allport. Journal of Personality, Vol. 65, pp 743-755. Bouchard, T. J. (2004). Genetic Influence on Human Psychological Traits. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(4), 148-151. Bradberry, T. 2007. The Personality Code. New York: Putnam. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2000). Perspectives on personality (4th ed.) Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 67, pp 319-333. Herbert A.  S. 1997. Administrative Behaviour: A Study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative Organizations, 4th Ed.  New York City: Simon & Schuster Ltd HJelle, L.A., & Ziegler, D.J. (1992). Personality Theories: Basic Assumptions, Research, and Applications. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Hoe, S. 2003. “Understanding Organizational Culture”, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 24, 2 pp 100-110 Ian, H. 2007. “The Fordism of Ford and Modern Management: Fordism and Post-Fordism”. Labour & Industry  Keyton, J. 2004. Communication and Organizational Culture: A Key to Understanding Work Experiences, Sage Publications, Inc King, L. A. & Smith, N. G. (2004). Gay and Straight Possible Selves: Goals, Identity, Subjective Well-Being, and Personality Development. Journal of Personality, Vol. 72, 5 pp 967-994. Kouzes, J. M. & Posner B. Z. 2007. The leadership challenge, Wiley Morris, R. 2002. Harvard Business Review on Culture and Change, Harvard Business Press Pettigrew, T. F. (1999). “Gordon Willard Allport: A Tribute”. Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 55, 3 pp 415-427. Robbins, S. P. 2004. Organizational Behavior - Concepts, Controversies, Applications. 4th Ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall Roberts, B. W., O'Donnell, M., & Robins, R. W. (2004). Goal and Personality Trait Development in Emerging Adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 87, 4, pp 541–550. Schein, E. 2000. Organizational Culture and Leadership, Jossey-Buss Schultz, D., & Schultz, S.E. (1994). Theories of personality (5th ed.) Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Read More