The Principles of Person-Centered Theory - Research Paper Example

The Principles of Person-Centered Theory Carl Random Rogers was born in Chicago in 1902 and he was the fourth of six children. He was born in America and he was not an immigrant (Thorne, 2003, p. 1). He was raised in a conservative Christian home and was brought up with values that said there would be no drinking, smoking or going to movies. Thorne states that today, his home might be considered fundamentalist. Instead, he was taught to have a very close knit family life on the virtues of hard work (Thorne, p. 1). His family moved in 1914 to a rural location 30 miles west of Chicago. He gained first hand knowledge about the scientific method and could become so immersed in the process that he was not always yearning for the interaction with other people. Person Centred Theory (PCT) Rogers was influenced by both the Behaviourists and the Psychodynamic theorists of his time. He said that he was specifically influenced by the work of Otto Rank. Rank was using psychoanalytic concepts that gave Rogers a basic foundation for his future work. (Gillon, 2007). With this background, Rogers was able to create his own theory. In 1939, Rogers wrote the book, The Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child and for the first time, wrote about person centred techniques and how important they were to the advancement of clients. Rogers wanted most of all to create a "non-directive therapeutic relationship" (Gillon p. 12). This relationship would help the client to participate more directly in the therapeutic process. Basic Concepts of the Theory Rogers believed that every person had inside of them an intrinsic and biological need to move toward personal growth. This need becomes a drive and pushed the individual toward fulfilment of their potential (Gillon, 2007). He called this drive a "actualizing tendency" and defined it as: A "directional trend which is evident in all organic and human life-the urge to extend, expand, develop, mature, the tendency to express and activate al the capacities of the organism and self" (Gillon, p. 27). In other words, Rogers saw that every organism was ready to reach their growth potential and no matter what they did, they had to move forward. The biological need, Rogers thought, is used to help the individual discern between those experiences that enhance an individual's movement forward and those that would hold an individual back. His term for this feature is "organism valuing" (Gillon, p. 29) and many practitioners feel that this concept represents what can be seen as the individual's truest self. In other words, because it is biological, it is unencumbered by outside influences or social conditioning. Initially, Rogers ignored the concept of self because it did not fall into the scientific construct that he was working within but as he worked with clients, he began to see its important (Gillon, 2007). Rogers saw the concept of "the self" as the perceptions that an individual had about themselves and the world around them that could not be scientifically proven to exist. Rogers also felt that human beings were trustworthy and they could make the choices to help them live their lives ; they were also capable of taking responsibility for their choices (Casemore, 2006 7). He described six conditions that must be met in order for an individual and a counsellor to enter into a counselling relationship: 1. The two people must be in contact psychologically when they enter the relationship. 2. The client is in a state of incongruence and needs assistance emotionally. 3. The therapist is "congruent and integrated" in the relationship. 4. The therapist has "unconditional positive regard" for the client. 5. The therapist has empathetic understanding of the challenges the client is having and communicates this information to them. 6. The client accepts the counsellor's unconditional positive regard and their empathetic understanding (Casemore, p. 8). Rogers believed that there were no other factors that an individual needed in order to effect change within themselves. Rogers also had his own theory of personality and behaviour in which he described "nineteen propositions." Within these propositions, he realized that the individual was moving into a somewhat vulnerable place in the therapeutic process so it was important for the counsellor to be "completely accepting, empathetic and genuinely present" (Casmore, p. 14) sin order to help an individual's full personality evolve. Rogers believed specific aspects of the personality began during infancy and interacted with their environment on a biological basis before anything else happened. As they continued to evolve, they come in contact with their caregivers. If there is an ongoing relationship with their caregiver, they begin to have a rudimentary idea of self by watching other people in their environment and mimicking what they see (Gillon, 2007). Eventually the infant will develop a full concept of self as they grow older. They eventually will develop positive regard by the environment around them which will add to their self-concept. As the child understands regard for others, they eventually develop positive regard for themselves. The child will eventually begin to exhibit behaviours and do activities that bring them internal rewards and feelings of a stronger self-worth (Gillon, 2007). Activities that are not associated with good feelings or self-worth and self value are avoided. Because an individual is avoiding conflicts within themselves that do not match their positive self-regard, and this is impossible to do all the time, defence mechanisms can emerge. Rogers saw two: denial, which happens when something is felt at an organismic level but not at a conscious level and distortion, which can be created as a misperception that comes in conflict with the self concept. When this happens, it creates incongruence and causes distress to the individual (Gillon, 2007). In other words, when people's values come in conflict with their self-concept, they fall into conflict. People who have been exposed to a large number of difficult situations that were damaging to their self-worth, can be more at risk for anxiety, depression, and other mental illnesses (Gillon, 2007). In addition to incongruence, the concept of "locus of evaluation" is important to the development of personality. When an individual has a variety of challenges that hurt their self-esteem, this conflict forces them to internalize them and eventually the individual loses their faith in their own ability to make decisions. Instead, they defer to others to give them the value of their experience (Thorne, 2002 ). All of these issues can become present in the client becoming stuck in the therapeutic process. These blocks can be the results of the introjected aspects that can prevent an individual from creating change in their life (Mearns, 2003). A further evaluation of the locus of evaluation can provide the counsellor with a deeper understanding of their clients. This issue presents itself as the way in which people learn to discern who they are in their environment. As an example, when an individual grows up in an environment where they are constantly criticized or judged, the individual will automatically create strategies that are designed to help them find approval and more towards a positive regard for other people. This means they will move away from their own organismic valuing process to accept what other people are telling them instead of relying on themselves. This also means that the individual will work to conform to their environment which can often mean they will suffer a low self-esteem or they may block out the areas of their own personality that would bring them to their own locus of evaluation (Mearns and Thorne, 1999). On the other side of this are those people who have been surrounded by others who accept and approve of them. This type of behaviour allows the individual to develop a more positive self-esteem and it helps them develop their own personal locus of evaluation. These individuals actually find a healthier way of being because they have been given the latitude to look deeper into themselves and into their own feelings. This action enables them to create trust in their own abilities and trust in others. They develop their own organismic valuing process which helps them to become a fully functioning person, which is what Person Centred counselling is attempting to do for those in need (Mearns and Thorne, 1999). Unconditional positive regard then, gives an individual an understanding based on their acceptance of their own locus of evaluation. When the client cannot find their own unconditional positive regard, the counsellor can help them embrace it. As an example, if an individual finds that they have allow self-worth, the counsellor can assist them in moving forward to find it. The counsellor can help the individual find value within themselves and therefore see the value that others have for them (Mearns and Thorne, 1999). Criticism of Roger's Work Thorne (2002) pointed out that Rogers was criticized for his work because they felt his view of human nature was naïve. The critics suggest that Rogers was so focused on the positive aspects of man that he forgot that there was a dark side or shadow side to man's nature. Rogers' response to this criticism was that he was well aware of the destructiveness of the human being, but he chose to focus on the aspects that motivated people to move forward instead. Thorne himself criticizes counsellors who are more concerned with rules and specific theories than they are about becoming fully authentic in themselves. The role of the practicing PCT counsellor is to become fully themselves, according to Thorne, so they can help their clients do the same. Some counsellors attempt to distance themselves from their clients instead of working to help them to find their way. If counsellors are not working towards fully functioning themselves, they will not be able to help their clients. Carl Rogers was ahead of his time in this researcher's opinion, because he saw through his client's problems to the place that was most sacred to them. He helped them bring out the real person inside so they could life more fully. Psychodynamic And Cognitive Behavioural Models As stated previously, Rogers was highly influenced by other theories and many of them are similar to what he did. One theory that is similar is Psychodynamic Theory. It is considered a developmental theory. Much like PCT, the basic premise of this theory is that each individual is a combination of their early experience and phantasy. These two experiences help the individual to create who they are which Rogers referred to as the authentic self. Depending on how the individual takes in information from their environment, this information may or may not have an effect on their internal world (Howard, 2010). Their inside world can feel conflicted, which can be compared to what Roger's incongruence. Psychodynamic counselling uses the concepts of transference and countertransferance as a very necessary component of the counselling process. This means that the therapist must think about his own inner workings while he is working with a client to see theirs (Howard, 2010). Within PCT, this concept is vastly different. For the PCT practitioner, transference is a process and it interferes with the client's progress of moving to their authentic self. This interference will need to be negotiated in order for the client to continue to move (Mearns, 2003). Where PCT is based on helping the individual find the components of their lives to create a more authentic self, psychodynamic counselling is based on a combination for "insight, containment of distress and the experience of a new relationships" (Howard, p. 2). These three factors allow an individual to move from where they are emotionally to a place where they are more fully functioning. However, the counsellor is interactive with the client in a different way with psychodynamic counselling. Another way that PCT and Psychodynamic counselling are similar is in the role of the therapist. In psychodynamic counselling, the therapist listens and asks questions for clarification, to make connections between different themes the client has brought out or to help the client understand specific issues (Howard, 2006). The environment is more sterile and formal environment than in PCT and the counsellor will distance themselves more from the client. Containment is also very important to psychodynamic counselling and it is a way that clients are taught to deal with particularly difficult situations or feelings as they arise. As an example, a particularly strong feeling may have an imaginary boundary around it in order to help the client deal with the feeling. A client can also "give" the feeling to the therapist (or other person) to allow the individual to work with it in a less frightening manner (Spurling, 2009). Rogers did not allow for containment so much because he saw the process of change in seven stages. In each stage, the client evolves more closely and succinctly to become more fully functioning. (Gillon, 2007). In other words, they move through the feelings in one of the stages because it brings them to a great place within themselves. An example of a psychodynamic approach that is similar to PCT is attachment theory. The major focus of this theory is that how a child attaches to their primary caregiver will have a bearing on their life as they grow older. Both POCT and attachment theory share the idea of the child having the inner working model that is often influenced by the behaviour of people in their environment. Rogers saw the concept as internalized aspects of a child's self-worth. John Bowlby, the psychiatrist who founded attachment theory, saw these first interactions as what may cause psychological disturbances for the child later in life (Gillon, 2007). This research has also shown that children who are at risk for many issues could have experienced care giving that was inconsistent or rejecting behaviour (Lishman, 2007). Another theory that has similarities to PCT is Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT). If there was one idea that would be attached to CBT it would be that it is based in dealing with situations that are present for the client now. One of the important elements of CBT is that it is based on goals that the client and therapist agree on in the beginning of therapy (Lishman, 2007). The goal is to help the client alleviate or improve those emotional states that the client find's distressing by finding different ways of thinking about them. CBT attempts to change thoughts or patterns of behaviour that cause a person to feel distress. In CBT, the focus is on those thoughts that bring out a specific behaviour rather than having the individual express the discomfort of the situation more openly, as they would in PCT (Kinsella and Garland, 2008). Similarly to Person Centred Counselling (CPT), CBT considers how the interaction of environment, thoughts, behaviours, feelings and psychical sensations affect the client at any given time. However, where PCT recognizes that the individual has everything they need inside of themselves to "fix" their challenges, CBT sees their thinking as the most important aspect to change (Kinsella and Garland, 2008). According to the research, since CBT is an "evidence based psychological intervention" (Kinsella and Garland, p. 12), it is best used in situations that lend themselves to gal construction and elimination of behaviour. As an example, mood disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and psychosis have seen improvement through CBT. Many of these more severe problems have seen improvement through CBT where other types of therapies have failed (Kinsella, and Garland, 2008). CBT also relies on setting measurable goals that are not a part of CPT in that it is more directive and is more a product of the counsellor helping to make specific suggestions for action with the client (Lishman, 2007). In summary, the difference between these two approaches is based on the way they understand the tension that the client may feel. In CPT, the client's experience as a whole is examined while in CBT, the role of cognition of these circumstances is observed. The client is a learned in CBT and needs to acquire something. In CPT, the client already has everything they need (Gillon, 2007). As I look at these different approaches, I can see myself using a more eclectic approach although there are positive points to each one. My major point will be to make sure the client is seeing progress as they move throughout the process of therapy. I am more inclined to adopt a Person Centred style because I believe the client has everything they need to within them to heal. However, some clients may need to make goals they can achieve to keep them motivated through the process of change. For me, having a variety of tools to work from is more important than pick out a specific model. Counselling's Role in Society As long as people have problems, there will always be a need for counselling There are several issues that are manifesting the need for counselling today. The wars in Iraq and Afghanistan are producing a need for counsellors to understand combat stress, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and bereavement. These wars also create a need for more family and couples counselling. As the global economic crisis continues, people will need help with mood disorders (specifically depression and anxiety) as well as how to cope with their current circumstances. Children and adolescents are having an increase in adjustment problems as schools change and have larger classrooms. Some children have difficulty with standardized testing and are not doing well in school, which will also cause a challenge for them. Some children have problems with puberty, teenage angst and loss of family members in war or natural death. Another area that becomes increasingly important is multicultural counselling. As an example, people with disabilities have specific problems that may be particular to their disability. Gay and lesbian issues, particularly same sex couples will need specific counselling that may be more prominent when they are allowed to marry. Because people are living longer and getting older, elderly issues will become more important. Counsellors will need more cultural competence training to work with all the diversity that currently comes to the counselling setting. Terry (2008) suggest that there are many facets of the elderly that need to be taken into consideration because people are living longer. Topics of bereavement, loss of home because they are unable to take care of themselves, the long-term effects of trauma, older couples and the frail elderly will be common in the counselling of the future. There are a variety of settings that counsellors work within and this will depend on the type of clients a counsellor wants to help. As an example, hospitals may be a good place for people who want to work with children, the elderly or those recovering or dealing with a disease. School counsellors are always needed in educational settings and sometimes in community centres or non-profit organisations. Many couples and families may need drug and alcohol facilities and counselling is a large part of this area. It is important for a counsellor to also understand the legal and ethical guidelines of their profession. Generally speaking, ethical guidelines are produced by professional organizations. As an example, the British Association of Counselling & Psychotherapy outlines the ethical considerations that a counsellor must adhere to if they belong to this organisation. They cover such issues as the values, principles and moral conduct of the counselling professionals. In terms of legal information, each counsellor must check with their licensing body in their area. They will spell out the legal implications of counselling for them. REFERENCES British Association of Counselling & Psychotherapy. (2002). Ethical Framework for Good Practice in Counselling and Psychotherapy. Retrieved February 22, 2010 from http://www.bacp.co.uk/prof_conduct/ Casemore, R. (2006). Person-Centred Counselling in a nutshell. London, UK: Sage Publications. Gillon, E. (2007). Person-centred counselling psychology: An introduction. CA: Sage Publications. Howard, S. (2010). Skills in psychodynamic counselling & psychotherapy. CA: Sage Publications. Howard, S. (2006). Psychodynamic Counselling in a nutshell. London, UK: Sage Publications. Kinsella, P. and Garland, A. (2008). Cognitive behavioural therapy for mental health workers: A beginner's guide. NY: Routledge. Lishman, J. (ed.). (2007) Handbook for practice learning in social work and social care: Knowledge and theory. PA: Jessica Kingsly Mearns, D. (2003). Developing person-centred counselling. 2nd Ed. CA: Sage Publications. Mearnes, D. and Thorne, B. (1999). Person centred counselling in action. 2nd ed. London, UK: Sage. Spurling, L. (2009). An introduction to psychodynamic counselling. 2nd ed. England, UK: Palgrave McMillan. Terry, P. (2008). Counselling and psychotherapy with older people: A psychodynamic approach. 2nd Ed. NY: Palgrave McMillan. Thorne, B. (2002). The mystical power of person-centred therapy: Hope beyond despair. PA: Whurr Publishers Thorne, B. (2003). Carl Rogers. 2nd Ed. CA: Sage Publications. Wheeler, B. (2006). Difference and diversity in counselling: Contemporary psychodynamic perspectives. Basingstoke Hampshire, UK: Palgrave MacMillan. Read More