Introduction to Psychology - Essay Example

Introduction to Psychology 05 October 2009 Six Major Perspectives The six major perspectives with respect to modern psychology are the biological, the cognitive, psycho-dynamic, behavioral, humanistic and socio-cultural. These perspectives in turn view human nature differently depending from which angle it is viewed and therefore focuses on the causes of behavior differently too. We can surmise that each perspective is valid but only up to a certain point as each perspective individually alone or by itself cannot fully or adequately explain the complexity of human behavior. Each perspective can benefit from the ideas offered by the other perspectives and it is along this line that we hope to be able to fully understand our own behaviors. The biological perspective attempts to explain human behavior as based on a physical side of human nature. This means behavior can be best understood by an examination of our highly-developed brains, the bio-chemical processes that go inside our brains and the role of genes in the development of individual behavior and personality traits. The ancient Greeks had thought of this as the basis to explain human behavior by adopting a duality concept of mind and body which they eventually combined to the concept of “monism” or of being one. A normally quiet person who suddenly goes violent because of a brain tumor illustrates this concept of the biological aspect of human behavior. Genetics can cause brain dysfunctions. The next perspective is the cognitive which advances the idea humans are primarily thinking machines far superior to other animals. It attempts to explain our actions as results of thinking such as the processing of information and thinking out solutions to problems. Mental processes like memory retention and learning can influence our motives and emotions. The psycho-dynamic perspective regards outwardly-observable behavior as the direct result of unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts from the past. The foremost thinker of this theory is Sigmund Freud due to his study of hysteria in which physical symptoms like blindness or paralysis have no organic or physical basis at all. This Freudian concept of our behavior is dominated by concepts of inborn sexual and aggressive drives which we try to deal with by developing defense mechanisms; the primary one of which is through repression. The behavioral perspective emphasizes the role of the external environmental in how our actions are determined to a large extent by the stimuli in our surroundings together with habits learned from previous life experiences. Empiricism which advocates the idea that all human knowledge and ideas are gained through our senses greatly influenced the behavioral perspective and a concrete proof of this concept is the system of rewards and punishments to shape desired behavior, whether in humans or in animals such as Pavlovs dogs. The humanistic perspective rejects the very idea that humans are subject to either some uncontrollable external forces or unrecognized unconscious tendencies. This theory holds that humans are higher beings and have a conscious free will and an innate tendency to achieve a degree of self-actualization towards the realization of ones full potential in life. Humanistic perspective believes we are endowed with conscious motives and therefore freedom of choice. The socio-cultural perspective focuses on the way culture influences our behavior such as the enduring values that we believe in and what behaviors are considered as acceptable in our society based on the culture prevailing at the time. An example is how culture determines individualistic attitudes or the opposite feelings of collectivism and need to belong to a group. Man is a very complex animal and no one perspective can fully explain his behavior. The mind of man is composed of so many different things and so the study of psychology is a journey with many possible destinations and results (Passer et al., 2000). Five Concepts of Experimental Design First of all, the overall logic of an experimental design is to test the validity of a hypothesis. This way, scientists can try to determine whether their theories are valid or not. Experimentation is one of the foundations of scientific research and is used to test the assumptions (hypotheses) made by the scientists and the results of the experiment will then be used to reject or fail to reject a certain hypothesis (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2005). If results of the experiment tend towards rejection of a hypothesis, then the initial theory or assumption is null and void; a failure to reject it means observed results appear to support the initial theory but this does not mean total confirmation or proof that the theory is correct or valid. It only indicates that further experimentation is required. The concept of disproof (the notion of rejecting a hypothesis as invalid) is an important characteristic of the scientific method. A good experimental design attempts to establish the valid relationships between two sets of variables – the independent and dependent variables. In short, an experiment is nothing but a set of operations designed to establish causality. The aim of efforts on cause-and-effect relationship experiments is to determine by systematic isolation the effect of an independent variable on at least one or more dependent variables. When that effect is firmly established, then it is quite safe to conclude which independent variable caused the observed phenomenon. There are five elements in a good experiment and these five are operational definition, independent variable, the dependent variable, the control group and experimental group. Each element plays a crucial role in the experiment and the absence of any one of the elements will make an experiment invalid and its results doubtful at best. Its conclusions will be unreliable and will render the whole experiment effort an exercise in futility. All experiments undergo a quality control process known as the peer review. This final step determines whether results will be accepted and if the conclusions will significantly add to our body of knowledge. An independent variable is the element that can be manipulated by the experimenter, and in the example given in the textbook, this was the volume of noise (the cause). Dependent variables, on the other hand, are variables dependent on the degree of noise employed (effect). Again, in the textbook example, this was the degree of learning that took place in the absence or presence of noise, as the case may be. The amount of learning was measured through the use of test exams and the results were correlated with the amount of noise present during examination. An experiment can have several dependent variables at once but preferably only one independent variable so that effects can be precisely isolated. On the other hand, a control group is the set of subjects that were not subjected to the noise during the examination. This group serves as the standard or base line by which other groups are measured and compared against. In this case, the experimental group was the set of subjects that were made to experience or hear noise during examination and their test results compared with that of the control group (who took the examination in total silence). Later on, the two set of groups (control and experimental) had their test results compared and one can see how noise (cause) can affect students’ ability to absorb or learn new information (effect). An operational definition is the exact meaning that is given to a certain variable related to the conduct of an experiment. The purpose is to leave no doubt as to what is meant so that two different people can be assured they are talking of exactly the same thing. The purpose of having it is to remove confusion that results from ambiguity and translate abstractions into something directly observable and measurable. In that alcohol experiment, two independent variables were employed which are men’s expectations and the actual content in their drinks. The dependent variable was the degree of the men’s arousal as measured by the degree of penis enlargement (through self-report ratings and physiological means). A control group was those men belonging to Condition No. 4 in the experiment (receive no alcohol nor expect any alcohol). Operational definition was erection. Reference List Passer, M. W., Atkinson, M. L., Smith, R. E., Mitchell, J. & Muir, W. (2008). Psychology: Frontiers and Applications. 3rd edition. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill. McArdle, William D., Katch, Frank I. & Katch, Victor L. (2005). Essentials of Exercise Physiology. 3rd edition, illustrate). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. Read More