Social Learning Approach in Psychology - Term Paper Example

The Social Learning Approach The Social Learning approach is based upon the acquisition of behavioral patterns from factors in the environment and socialization patterns. Albert Bandura has suggested that behavior is learnt vicariously through observation of behavioral patterns of external models, whereby an individual retains those patterns of behavior and repeats them at a later stage when motivated to do so. He also puts forth the self efficacy construct as being an important determinant in the degree of adaptability of an individual to his or her environment, providing the ability to deal effectively with stressful situations in the environment. Burr (1998) views gender as being a salient factor influencing social interactions and social conditioning, whereby women develop patterns of social behavior that reflect their perceived inferior position in society as compared to men. According to Bandura, observation and modeling are very important in shaping the attitude and behavior of individuals. He states: “most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling; from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions, this coded information serves as a guide for action” (Bandura, 1977:22). In providing an explanation for human behavior, Bandura views it as a reciprocal interaction between environmental, behavioral and cognitive influences. The constituent elements that comprise this learning process include (a) attention (b) retention (c) Motor reproduction and (d) Motivation. The first factor, i.e, the level of attention, depends upon the events themselves, such as its distinctiveness, valence and functional value as well as the characteristics of the observer such as the sensory capabilities and past reinforcement. The retention includes cognitive organization and motor rehearsal. Motor reproduction depends upon the physical capability of the observer as well as the accuracy of feedback, while the extent of motivation of the individual includes external as well as self reinforcement. Bandura has offered the example of television viewing as lending itself to vicarious observational learning, especially when viewers rehearse the behavior and enact it overtly (Bandura 1977). He suggested that aggressive patterns of behavior are learnt from observing characters on TV and the viewer is more likely to model such behavior if the character on TV is not punished or is able to get away with violent acts. Three aspects are to be examined, “first, how aggressive patterns of behavior are developed; second, what provokes people to behave aggressively, and third, what determines whether they are going to continue to resort to an aggressive behavior pattern on future occasions”. (Evans, 1989:22). . Bandura’s illustrated this process of social leaning of aggressive behavior through his experiment with Bobo dolls. First, he had a group of children watch a model attacking Bobo dolls. The model “pummels it [the doll] on the head with a mallet, hurls it down, sits on it and punches it on the nose repeatedly, kicks it across the room, flings it in the air and bombards it with balls…” (Bandura, 1973:72). This was the first stage of the learning process, where the attention of the viewer is engaged and the potential for the viewer to repeat such behavior will also depend upon past reinforcement patterns. Hence, if a child viewer of such an experiment comes from a family where he or she periodically observes violent acts being inflicted by one member of the family on another, the likelihood of such a viewer repeating the behavioral pattern is increased. Following this stage of observation of aggressive behavior on the part of the model, the children were then made to watch a video where there were attractive toys, but they could not touch them, thus creating frustration in the child. This is the retention stage, where the information received on the aggressive behavior through observation is processed cognitively by the child. After this, the children were led into yet another room where there were several Bobo dolls present, identical to the one used in the first video. This was the motivation phase which also produced the motor reproduction of the observed activity. 88% of the children repeated the aggressive behavior and attacked the dolls. Bandura found that both girls and boys tended to imitate the aggressive behavior; however the girls tended to be generally less aggressive than the boys. Another aspect of Bandura’s social-cognitive theory is the self efficacy construct. Outcome expectancies refer to the perception by the individual of the possible consequences of his or her action, while self efficacy expectations refer to personal control of action (Bandura 1997). An individual who believes that he or she can cause an event is more likely to leads his or her life in a more self determined and active way. This cognitive ability reflects a certain degree of control over one’s environment rather and the belief that environmental demands can be challenged and controlled to some action by taking the initiative and engaging in adaptive action. According to Bandura (1997), self efficacy makes a difference in the way people think and act, since low self efficacy leads to corresponding feelings of depression and pessimistic and self defeating thoughts. Individuals with high levels of self efficacy will choose to perform more challenging tasks, set higher goals and stick to them with more tenacity and persistence than those with lower self efficacy. Such individuals are less likely to be deterred by setbacks and are able to explore their environments or even create new environments, as opposed to being defeated or overcome by the environment. An individual with high self efficacy possesses a stable sense of self competence that enables him or her to deal more effectively with stressful situations. Burr (1998) has suggested that gender plays an important role in social learning. She offers the view that the body language of men and women and the pattern of their interactions together express important messages about how individuals feel they can occupy physical space, with the conversation between men and men being “suffused with power relations” (Burr, 1998:4). The manner in which males and females are socialized is different and this may produce corresponding differences in their social interactions as well as their ability to deal with conflicts (Weingartern and Douvan, 1985). Gender differences between men and women are accentuated from a young age when gender stereotyping begins to take place. Boys are exposed to a competitive environment from a very young age.(Gilligan, 1982:9). They play games like soccer and baseball, where they must compete aggressively to win. They are encouraged to be assertive from a young age and receive parental approval if they are bold and independent.(Baehr, 1976:11-12). As a result, men are more self confident and aggressive and they tend to be less emotional and as a result, may also be less empathetic and intuitive. Women on the contrary are raised to be passive and submissive rather than aggressive and competitive and their families are supportive when they are dependent and non-aggressive.(Gilligan, 1982). The kind of games girls play are different from boys, since hopscotch and jump rope call for the girls to take turns and does not place them directly in conflict with each other, but rather requires them to communicate effectively by being sensitive to others’ needs as well. One person may succeed without the necessary implication that it is a failure for others (Gilligan, 1982:10). Gilligan also points out that their approach to moral and ethical dilemmas are also different since women are raised to nurture and care about others, rather than viewing moral dilemmas from a strictly impersonal perspective of right and wrong (Gilligan, 1982). Due to these differences in the manner in which they are socialized, the gender stereotype that exists about women is that they are more emotional and intuitive and tend to evaluate issues from a subjective standpoint based upon their feelings and the feelings of others. Men are trained to be more rational and impersonal on moral issues so that they are able to view ethical dilemmas strictly from a perspective of right or wrong (Gilligan, 1982). Freud bases his notion of the gender identity of children on their recognition of whether or not they have a penis. The girl’s absence of a penis makes her feel that she has been castrated, as a result of which she is a second class citizen, which makes her identify more closely with her mother who is in a similar position and adopts a submissive attitude which is in keeping with her lower status. The Oedipal phase develops in boys between the ages of three to five, when they begin to develop a sexual awareness of their mother, but fears that his powerful father who is a rival for his mother’s affections, will castrate him for those feelings (Burr, 1998:8). As a result, he attempts to resolve this conflict by identifying more strongly with his father and imbibes all the morals and values that he stands for. Frued’s theories have faced considerable criticism, for automatically assuming the predominance and importance of the male. Radical feminists in particular offer a different view of female socializing, blaming patriarchy for the fact that women have been and still are controlled by the dominant male class. This domination pervades every area of the life of females. At work, they are paid less than men despite doing similar work and the subordinate status extends into the sphere of the home as well, in personal relations including child bearing and sexual relations (Burr, 1998:18). They argue that the masculine view of the world has distorted the experience of women. Catherine McKinnon’s thesis on feminist thought and its relevance in the social context, are set out in her book about a feminist view of the State, based upon the foundation that men routinely abuse women and are sexual aggressors who impose their views on women by constantly keeping them in a position of subordination. In advocating a radical feminist theory, she therefore proposes that there is a deep bond that unites women all over the world and this belief is not based on race or shared values or the fact that all women are members of the human race – rather it is based upon a common experience which all women share – the experience of feeling powerless, subjugated and dominated by men, left to suffer as helpless victims with a society controlled by men and in a system of jurisprudence that was essentially male, inspite of its proclaimed impartiality. (McKinnon, 1989:117). Miell and Croghan (1996) have pointed out how existing cultural scripts in society tend to place an emphasis on heterosexual romantic love as being the means by which an individual can fulfill one’s deepest needs; however such a cultural script tends to devalue the support and fulfillment and strength that may be derived from other relationships such as friendship. In conclusion, it may be noted that the social learning approach in psychology centers on the impact of environmental influences upon an individual. Cognitive learning and the learning of social patterns is viewed as a function of an individual’s interactions with his or environment. An individual learns behavioral patterns through observation, modeling and imitation and Bandura has demonstrated the effects of such vicarious learning, especially in modeling aggressive behavior, wherein learning takes place in four stages – attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation. Learning also occurs through social conditioning and females typically learn to develop submissive behavioral patterns based upon the social conditioning they receive in a patriarchal society. Due to the differences in socialization patterns for boys and girls, boys develop more aggressive behavioral patterns as they identify with other male members. The girls games play are different and are geared towards developing submissive traits, which may also explain why they are generally less aggressive in the Bobo doll experiments. References: * Baehr, J, 1991. “How to be an assertive (not aggressive) woman in life, in love and on the job”, NY: Pocket Books * Bandura, Albert, 1977. “Social Learning Theory”, New York: General Learning Press * Bandura, Albert, 1973. “Aggression: A Social learning Analysis”, NJ: Prentice-Hall * Burr, Vivien, 1998. “Gender and Social Psychology” Routledge. * Evans, Richard I, 1989. “Albert Bandura: the man and his ideas: a dialogue”, New York: Praeger * Gilligan, Carol, 1982. “In a different voice” Cambridge: Harvard University Press * MacKinnon, Catherine,1989. “Toward a feminist Theory of State”, Cambridge: Harvard University Press * Miell, D., & Croghan, R, 1996. “Examining the wider context of social relationships”, IN Miell, D and Dallos, R (Eds.), “Social interaction and personal relationships.” Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, at pp 267-318. * Weingarten, Helen R and Douvan, Elizabeth, 1985. “Research Report: Male and female visions of mediation” Negotiation Journal, October. 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