Risk and protective factor of anorexia nervosa - Essay Example

Risk/protective Factor of Anorexia Nervosa Risk/protective Factor of Anorexia Nervosa Introduction Anorexia nervosa is a serious eating disorder. This develops when a person has obsessive fear of gaining weight and hence he/she becomes reluctant to take food. Characterized with a distorted self image, the victims of anorexia nervosa are exposed to a set of cognitive biases that influence the way the affected individuals think about their body and food pattern. Although the victims will have appetite for food, they unreasonably control their desire and take very small quantities of food. This paper will analyze the risk factors as well as protective factors of anorexia nervosa so as to obtain insight into people’s susceptibility to developing this eating disorder. Overview of the Topic Beginning from the Hellenistic era, the history of anorexia nervosa extends to the medieval period. Anorexia nervosas was not a recognized health disorder until the late 19th century when Sir William Gull published a seminar paper in which the term anorexia nervosa was first introduced along with a detailed description of this health condition. Although the American media reported a number of cases where young women had refused to take food, no one could explain the psychological bases or severity of this condition. The knowledge and awareness of anorexia nervosa widely increased when the German-American psychoanalyst Hilde Bruch published her popular book titled ‘The golden cage: The enigma of anorexia nervosa’ in 1978. In addition, the death of the popular singer Karen Carpenter, a victim of anorexia nervosa, in 1983 was a marked event as it helped this eating disorder gain broad media coverage. Popular figures like Catherine of Siena and Queen of Scots are believed to be the victims of anorexia nervosa. When it comes to the etiology of anorexia nervosa, it is a complex health condition caused by a combination of factors. According to Bernstein (2014), “anorexia nervosa is a complex condition that is based on biologic, psychologic, and social issues”. The author adds that anorexia nervosa is not a mere mental problem but a developmental disorder, and therefore it is crucial to manage the actual causes of the condition instead of focusing on its perpetuating and precipitating factors. To obtain clear understanding of the etiology of anorexia nervosa, its causes are categorized into three like predisposing factors, precipitating factors, and perpetuating factors. In the words of Bernstein (2014), the major predisposing factors that increase a person’s vulnerability to anorexia nervosa include family, gender, genetic family history, low self-esteem, and perfectionistic personality. Identity conflict is recognized to be the root cause of precipitating factors, which emerge from sexual development and menarche in individuals aged 10-16. Evidently, perpetuating factors also play a significant role in developing this eating disorder. Although anorexia nervosa is not a gender-specific disorder, studies based on empirical evidences suggest that females aged 15-24 years are highly vulnerable to developing this eating disorder. Some recent studies indicate that even children may be diagnosed with anorexia nervosa. The onset of this eating disorder may be associated with stressful life events, and hence its outcomes would be also variable (Strober, Freeman, Lampert & Diamond, 2007). Regardless of the outcomes, anorexia nervosa is a serious psychological disorder characterized with a high incidence of comorbidity. Review of the Articles Previous researchers found that self-oriented perfectionism could be a risk factor for eating disorders like anorexia nervosa. When perfectionists fail to achieve extreme standards, they feel a lack of personal control, and subsequently they turn to dietary restriction in an effort to regain a sense of control. In a study conducted by Kunstman, Smith and Maner (2014), experiencing of power can assist self-oriented perfectionists to gain a sense of personal control and to increase the level of consumption notably. In other words, situational power contributes to increased caloric consumption among those high in self-oriented perfectionism (Kunstman et. al). The study also points that the scope of situational power could be extended to address other eating disorders and psychological disorders. The society’s perceptions of beauty and health can greatly influence the probability of developing eating disorders like anorexia nervosa. In the current societal setting, people consider a slim body as the symbol of beauty (specifically for females), and therefore adolescent girls take a little food to maintain a low body weight. The mass media depict ideal woman as ‘tall, white, and thin’, with a tubular body thus contributing significantly to the growing incidence of eating disorders; and body dissatisfaction and distorted self image are some of the key diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa (Serdar, n.d.). It is identified that genetic factors can have a great influence on anorexia nervosa. Members of the affected families are at greater risk of developing anorexia nervosa when compared to the control families. In a comprehensive research study performed by Steinhausen, Jakobsen, Helenius, Munk‐Jørgensen and Strober (2015), factors such as having a sibling with anorexia nervosa, family members with affective disorders, and ‘co-morbid affective, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, personality, or substance use disorders’ may significantly contribute to an individual’s risk of this eating disorder. In addition, the researchers identified that there is a close association between female sex, ascending year of birth, and anorexia nervosa (Steinhausen et al). Similarly, it is observed that perinatal factors can play a crucial role in determining the incidence of anorexia nervosa. Favaro, Tenconi and Santonastaso (2010) found that there is significant addictive interaction between ‘functional signs of neonatal dysmaturity’ and childhood abuse in determining the probability of developing anorexia nervosa. They reflect that an experience of childhood abuse can alter an individual’s stress response system and eventually he/she may develop unwanted psychological behaviors (Favaro, et al). A nationally representative cohort study was conducted by Nicholls and Viner (2009) to form great understanding of the risk factors as well as protective factors of anorexia nervosa. In the study, the authors identified that ‘female sex, infant feeding problems, maternal depressive symptoms in early childhood, and a history of undereating in late childhood’ may increase an individual’s susceptibility to anorexia nervosa. The researchers also discovered that higher self-esteem and maternal BMI in late childhood can serve as protective factors of this eating disorder (Nicholls & Viner, 2009). This study also denied the previous research finding that factors like parenting, childhood BMI, academic ability, or childhood emotional problems can increase a person’s risk of developing anorexia nervosa. Growing body of evidences suggest that anorexia nervosa is preventable if people take active efforts to increase their protective factors against this disorder. As Shepphird points out, a number of prevention efforts are intruded in the form of formal programs directed to minimizing the risk of this eating disorder. The author adds that parents, families, former victims, and local communities have a key role to play in enhancing prevention efforts. When different interest groups take shared efforts, it is possible to achieve lasting result. “It may ‘take a village’ to raise a child well, but it takes a culture to combat the proliferation of eating disorders” (Shepphird, 2009, p.216). Major Conclusions Anorexia nervosa is a serious eating disorder that can significantly affect the normal life of the affected person. Although it is not a gender-specific disorder, females aged between 15 and 24 are increasingly vulnerable to developing this mental disorder. It has been identified that anorexia nervosa has a range of risk factors as well as protective factors. The reflection of the beauty concept by the mass media is a major factor influencing persons’ attitude toward dietary control. Some studies indicate that previous experiences of childhood abuse may increase an individual’s vulnerability to anorexia nervosa. Psychological practitioners suggest that females with inferiority complex are more likely to develop anorexia nervosa because they might have a distorted self image. In addition, a number of other factors such as female sex, infant feeding problems, and a history of undereating in late childhood may keep a person vulnerable to anorexia nervosa. However, researchers identify that people with higher self-esteem and maternal BMI in late childhood are less likely to develop this eating disorder. To illustrate, individuals with higher self-esteem will have a positive perception of their beauty and hence they would not develop a fear of gaining body weight. Experiencing power is a protective factor for self-oriented perfectionists as it helps them gain a sense of personal control and to increase the caloric consumption. The dreadful feature of anorexia nervosa is that this eating disorder is closely associated with a high incidence of comorbidity. Limitations of the Literature The major limitation of this paper is that the findings of most of the articles used for this study could not be generalized, because those studies focused mainly on a female respondents group. Although anorexia nervosa is more prevalent among females, it is crucial to cover both genders to come up with generalizable outcomes. Since different studies were conducted in different countries, the results might be influenced by cultural variances. In other words, the universality of those research outcomes is questioned. Finally, this paper depended only on secondary data, and therefore the accuracy of the outcomes may be limited to some extents. Implications The outcomes of this study have a range of positive implications on the treatment and prevention of anorexia nervosa. This literature review makes it clear that increasing protective factors against anorexia nervosa is the best strategy to reduce the incidence of this psychological disorder. For this, parents may take efforts to inculcate high self-esteem in their children in their early childhood. In addition, the different risk factors demonstrated in this paper can help psychological practitioners to identify the groups that are at a greater risk of developing anorexia nervosa. The findings of this study are really helpful for readers to understand the comorbid conditions associated with anorexia nervosa. Future Directions In future studies relating to anorexia nervosa, the researchers have to focus equally on both genders so as to promote the generalisability of outcomes even though the prevalence of this disorder is notably less among male population. In addition, it is advisable to perform the same study in various cultural settings in order to keep the outcomes unaffected by cultural variables. It is also recommendable for future researchers to rely more on primary data to enhance the credibility and accuracy of the outcomes. Conclusion From the above discussion, it is clear that the risk factors of anorexia nervosa include female sex, infant feeding problems, hereditary issues, maternal depressive symptoms in early childhood, weak BMI in late childhood, childhood abuse, and other emotional difficulties whereas the protective factors include experiencing of power, higher self-esteem, and maternal BMI in late childhood. References Bernstein, B. E. (2014). Anorexia Nervosa. Retrieved from http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/912187-overview Favaro, A., Tenconi, E., &Santonastaso, P. (2010). The interaction between perinatal factors and childhood abuse in the risk of developing anorexia nervosa. Psychological Medicine, 40(4), 657-665.doi:10.1017/S0033291709990973 Kunstman, J. W., Smith, A. R., &Maner, J. K. (2014). Overpowering restriction: Power reduces restriction among self-critical perfectionists. Journal Of Social And Clinical Psychology, 33(7), 630-652.doi:10.1521/jscp.2014.33.7.630 Nicholls, D. E., & Viner, R. M. (2009). Childhood risk factors for lifetime anorexia nervosa by age 30 in a national birth cohort. Journal Of The American Academy Of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(8), 791-799. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181ab8b75 Serdar, K. L. (n.d.). Female Body Image and the Mass Media: Perspectives on How Women Internalize the Ideal Beauty Standard. Westminster College. Retrieved from http://www.westminstercollege.edu/myriad/index.cfm?parent=...&detail=4475&content=4795 Shepphird, S. F. (2009). 100 Questions & Answers About Anorexia Nervosa. Jones & Bartlett Learning. Strober, M., Freeman, R., Lampert, C & Diamond, J. (2007). The association of anxiety disorders and obsessive compulsive personality disorder with anorexia nervosa: evidence from a family study with discussion of nosological and neurodevelopmental implications. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40, S46-51. Steinhausen, H. C., Jakobsen, H., Helenius, D., Munk‐Jørgensen, P., &Strober, M. (2015).A national-wide study of the family aggregation and risk factors in anorexia nervosa over three generations. International Journal of Eating Disorder, 48(1),1-8.doi: 10.1002/eat.22293 Read More