Definitions and Treatment of the Psychological - Essay Example

Definitions and Treatment of the Psychological Mental health practitioners have spent decades trying to paint a clear picture of abnormality. Behaviour is a contentious concept because it is very relative. People exhibit different behaviours at a high frequency, so distinguishing between normal from abnormal has been very challenging. However, researchers have developed baseline indicators that identify abnormal psychology with great accuracy. This paper will discuss the current definitions and treatment of abnormal psychology and use relevant literature to support arguments presented. The paper is divided into two tasks: 1 and 2. Task 1 will entail examination of the pros and cons of existing definitions of psychological abnormalities, discussion of the suppositions made and remedies proposed by one psychological and one biological view of abnormality, and evaluation of the evidence to support each view. It will also include an evaluation of the influence of culture, socioeconomic class and gender on the prevalence and diagnosis of psychological disorders. Task 2 will involve completion of a chart and definition of the manifestations of one psychological disorder, assessment of at least two rationales for the disorder, and presentation of the main points, commonalities, contrasts, and pros and cons of each rationale. Task 1 Definitions of Abnormal Psychology Statistical Deviation The main attribute is unusual behaviour; a huge contrast with the norm. This definition uses the premise that all human behaviours are normally distributed. It holds that in all classifications of human characteristics majority of people exhibit patterns that fall around the norm. This implies that the farther away a classification falls from the norm, the fewer the individuals (Barlow & Durand, 2014:19). For instance, gender is a natural human attribute; people are almost always male or female. It is, therefore, safe to say that gender is normally distributed. As a result, any gender classification that deviates from the male/female axis is abnormal. Attributes falling beyond a particular range from the normal statistics can, therefore, be categorised as unusual. This range is determined using standard deviation units. Standard deviation units are statistics that show researchers how many individuals transcend the norm. For instance, the rate of individual’s one standard deviation higher than the norm is roughly 34 percent. A common method used by researchers involves classifying individuals who rank above two standard deviations as abnormal (Zachar, 2014:26). Research shows that in any classification, 95.4 percent of people exhibit characteristics that fall within the two standard deviation limits. The same applies to psychology. Any person who displays attributes that are outside the two standard deviation limits is psychologically abnormal. This definition is probably the simplest because it basically involves gathering data, computing means and standard deviations, and then using the standard deviations to classify anybody who contradicts their limits as abnormal (Rosenhan, 1973:254). Consider psychological trait like intelligence, which has a normal distribution whose average figure is 100. Individuals whose IQ scores are two standard deviations below 100 are, therefore, abnormal (intellectually disabled). Strengths and Weaknesses The benefit of this definition is that it is purely statistical and, as is often the case with numbers, it is easy to decipher patterns. In fact, numbers often lead to a positive/negative inference. In addition, anybody can interpret numbers; one does not need professional qualifications to elucidate simple figures. The problem with this definition is that despite the existence of patterns, people can still interpret numbers differently (Comer, 2013:34). For example, an individual with superior intelligence might be considered normal despite falling beyond other averages like social behaviour. Finally, the progressive nature of research means that new data is regularly generated, meaning today’s averages might not be the same tomorrow. This can create confusion when seeking a common benchmark for classifying abnormal psychology. Social Norm Deviation Every society has written and unwritten rules that define acceptable behaviour. In fact, most human behaviour is determined by norms – societal standards of right and wrong conduct. Some examples of norms include eating habits and dietary composition, eye contact, proper dressing, etiquette and courtesy, gender roles, etc (Davies, 2013:71). Any individual who regularly contradicts these informal laws is viewed as abnormal. This definition is simple, compelling, and powerful. It is based on common sense, and norms are usually so firmly embedded that they appear absolute. Strengths and Weaknesses The benefit of this definition is that social norms are so powerful that they are virtually impossible to ignore. As a result, they can be relied on to develop conclusive classifications of individuals. The methodology is simple: any person who “betrays” the norm is abnormal. This definition has two major weaknesses. The first is that it is impossible for society to be perfect (Ray, 2014:17). By the logic of this standard, all social revolutionaries would be abnormal. Feminists, cross-dressers, LGBTs (lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgenders), and other people with different attributes would be considered abnormal. This is a huge misconception. The second weakness lies in the concept of cultural relativism. Cultures and societies are different, and they have different norms. What is wrong in Chinese society may be normal in American society. This relativism shatters the whole concept of norms and makes it inapplicable. Maladaptive Conduct There are two variants of maladaptive behaviour. The first involves being inadequacy to oneself – incapacity to attain goals and measure up to life’s demands. The second involves inability to fit into society by disrupting normal social group behaviour (Eysenck & Keane, 2013:26). For instance, overindulgence, poor relations in all social settings, inability to sustain employment, over aggression, and other maladaptive characteristics inform this definition. Strengths and Weaknesses This definition is practical because it highlights and explains people who cannot adapt. In addition, it is flexible because it considers circumstances that inform situations and acknowledges that the term maladaptive is comparable. The main weakness of this definition is that it fails to take into account the fact that some situations, despite being dominant, can always be abnormal (Levine, Rodrigues, & Zelezny, 2013:36). For instance, some African-Americans refused to conform to discriminative conditions created by White Americans. This does not make them abnormal because the situation is also inherently abnormal. Personal Anguish Satisfaction with life puts one in the clear when it comes to mental health diagnosis. However, personal anguish – depression, anxiety, paranoia – indicate abnormality to a certain degree (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2013:57). This classification assumes that people who are psychologically normal are, overall, happy. Strengths and Weaknesses The strength of this classification lies in its use of happiness as an indication of normality. Happiness is a core aspect of human nature; it motivates almost all humanistic behaviours. The problem with this definition is its failure to clarify the degree of discontent that is considered normal/abnormal (Levine, Rodrigues, & Zelezny, 2013:16). Being distressed once in a while is part of the human expression of emotions; people cannot be happy all the time. Moreover, since constant discontent is abnormal, this definition should set a standard for happiness. Assumptions made and methods of Treatment suggested by a Biological and Psychological Perspective of Abnormality An example of a biological perspective is the medical view, which assumes that all abnormal behaviours are caused by physical conditions (Pickren & Zimbardo, 2014:108). Based on this, the medical view recommends treatment using drugs. These drugs fall into three categories: a) Antidepressants. b) Anti-anxiety medications. c) Antipsychotic medications. An example of a psychological perspective is the psychodynamic view. This view assumes that abnormal psychology is caused by anxiety which is in turn created by unaddressed, unconscious differences (Okami, 2013:64). It also assumes that if an individual can comprehend past events and their unconscious ideas within the mind, then they can deal better with their existing situations. One treatment method recommended by the psychodynamic view is free association, which was pioneered and practiced by Sigmund Freud. Evaluation of Evidence to support each Approach The medical perspective has been proven to be valid because since human beings are physical, any defect in the physical form affects an individual’s mental state. For instance, people have been known to become depressed after having accidents that result in brain injuries. Physical injuries create stress in the body, which is relayed to the brain via receptors, since the two entities are interconnected (Kearney & Trull, 2014:84). Individuals can develop paranoia, depression, and anxiety due to physical stress. In addition, debilitating physical illnesses like cancer can affect an individual’s mental state. As such, abnormalities caused by physical conditions require medical remedies. The psychodynamic perspective is also valid because the mind is the most powerful organ. Thoughts, which can be influenced by internal or external factors, affect one’s mental state. For instance, some individuals develop acute phobias as a result of mental or physical experiences. For example, mental disorders of isolated rape victims have been proven to alleviate considerably once they open up using the free association technique (Carter & Seifert, 2013:25). Lack of expression builds up pressure in the brain and inspires feelings of loneliness, anxiety, depression, and self-loathing. However, unconditional expression of the experiences relieves pressure and leads to an improvement in mental capacities. Impact of Culture, Gender and Socio-economic groups on the Prevalence and Diagnosis of Psychological Disorders Different cultures interpret psychological disorders differently. What is normal in some societies may be abnormal in others. For example, in societies where violence is prevalent (e.g., war-torn African countries), mental afflictions related to violence may not be classified as abnormal. As a result, diagnoses and prevalence of violent-related disorders will be rare. In cultures where the opposite is true, the situation will be the reverse (as above) (Bornstein, 2013:48). In some parts of the world, women are seen as mentally fragile and vulnerable compared to men. Gender roles also influence diagnoses, which in turn affect incidences of disorders. In addition, women are more sensitive than women. For example, a woman may consider having multiple husbands to be abnormal. On the other hand, a man with multiple wives will not feel uncomfortable about it. In some instances, people are quick to diagnose women with disorders simply because they are more sensitive and “mentally fragile” compared to men. Some people view psychological disorders as social problem. There societies where certain mental illnesses (e.g., paranoia and schizophrenia) are associated with people of low socioeconomic standing. Privileged people, on the other hand, may be seen as averse to such afflictions (Workman & Reader, 2014:37). For instance, research a 2007 research conducted by Werner, Malaspina, and Rabinowitz showed that there is a positive correlation between socioeconomic status at birth and risk of schizophrenia. Such findings influence diagnoses in some medical settings, where a medical practitioner may be quick to profile a patient from a poor background as schizophrenic. These findings could also lead to misdiagnoses based on socioeconomic status. For example, a normal person with a low socioeconomic standing may be misdiagnosed due to quick association with abnormality. On the other hand, abnormal individuals from privileged backgrounds may be diagnosed as normal simply because it is “unlike” them to suffer from mental disorders. Task 2 Schizophrenia Symptoms: a) Hallucinations b) Disorganised behaviour c) Negative symptoms (e.g., apathy) d) Delusions e) Disorganised speech The Biological Explanation One Psychological explanation (psychoanalytic) 1. Schizophrenia is transmitted from parents to their offspring through genes. 2. An individual has a 1 percent chance of acquiring schizophrenia if they have a history of the disorder in their family. 3. Neurochemicals contribute to the development of schizophrenia (excess dopamine). 4. Neuroanatomical factors cause schizophrenia (ventricles of patients are larger (15%) than those individuals free from the disease. 1. Neglect and maltreatment causes schizophrenic symptoms (isolation, defensive shields). 2. Neglect also causes fragile egos and leads to narcissism, another schizophrenic symptom. 3. Lack of attention leads to self-centredness and withdrawal, another symptom of schizophrenia. Differences Reductionist Holistic Similarities Deterministic Deterministic Uses familial factors to explain disease. Uses familial factors to explain disease. Assessment of the above explanations: The biological explanation is much weaker compared to the psychoanalytic explanation. There is little evidence to suggest that schizophrenia has physiological roots. However, evidence to suggest that the disorder results from psychoanalytic factors is very compelling. References Barlow, D. & Durand, V. (2014) Abnormal psychology: an integrative approach (7th ed.), Belmont, CA, Cengage Learning. Bornstein, M. (Ed.). (2013) Psychology and its allied disciplines, Hillsdale, N.J., Psychology Press. Carter, K. & Seifert, C. (2013) Learn psychology, Burlington, MA., Jones & Bartlett Learning. Comer, R. (2013) Fundamentals of abnormal psychology (7th ed.), New York, Worth. Davies, W. (2013) How to study psychology (Illustrated ed.), Hove, East Sussex, Psychology Press. Eysenck, M. & Keane, M. (2013) Cognitive psychology: a students handbook (6th, Revised ed.), Hove, England, Psychology Press. Hill, G. (2009) Advanced psychology through diagrams, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Kearney, C. & Trull, T. (2014) Abnormal psychology and life: a dimensional approach (2nd ed.), Belmont, CA., Cengage Learning. Levine, R., Rodrigues, A. & Zelezny, L. (Eds.). (2013) Journeys in social psychology: looking back to inspire the future, New York, Taylor & Francis. Okami, P. (2013) Psychology: Contemporary perspectives, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Pickren, W. & Zimbardo, P. (2014) The psychology book: from shamanism to cutting-edge neuroscience, 250 milestones in the history of psychology (Illustrated ed.), New York, Sterling Publishing Company. Plotnik, R. & Kouyoumdjian, H. (2013) Introduction to psychology (10th ed.), Ohio, Cengage Learning. Ray, W. (2014) Abnormal psychology: Neuroscience perspectives on human experience (Illustrated ed.), New York, SAGE Publications. Rosenhan, D. (1973) On Being Sane In Insane Places, Science, vol. 179, no. 4070, pp. 250-258. Workman, L. & Reader, W. (2014) Evolutionary psychology: an introduction (Illustrated, Revised ed.), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Zachar, P. (2014) A metaphysics of psychopathology (Illustrated ed.), Boston, MA., MIT Press. Read More