Intelligence New Findings and Theoretical Developments - Assignment Example

 Intelligence New Findings and Theoretical Developments Question 1 Apparently, heritability is described asa variability proportion that is easily accountable by variation in genotype. According to Nisbett,et al.(2012), heritability emanates from animal breeding where genotype and environment variations are well controlled by the experimenter and the existence of real world applications. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that the ‘variability’ in heritability is not easily controlled and as such, Nisbett, et al.(2012) argues that it is not easy to estimate heritability thus could take any value. Consequently, the estimated heritability level of Intelligence (IQ) is believed to range between .4 and .8 for normal human beings and generally less for children. Question 2 According to heritability by SES’’ hypothesis, argued that intelligence in most likely to have heritability higher in the group that was randomly selected for exposure to the enriched environment. Moreover, SES group that show higher heritability of intelligence were groups of twins -children in high-risk impoverished environment, a measure of intelligence that was purely based on child ability scale that conducted to parents through telephone. As such, United States show the strongest evidence for the hypothesis with the age group of 12 years while the United Kingdom shows the weakest evidence with the age group of 14 years. Question 3 In comparison to other IQ determining methods, adoption studies tend to underestimate the role of environment in predicting intelligence. This is because there is restricted social class range of adoptive homes. Instead, adoptive studies overstate the role of genetics since continuous observation of family settings by HOME techniques indicate that environments of adoptive families are more supportive in intellectual growth as compared to those families that are not adoptive. Consequently there is range restriction which articulates that the possible correlation magnitudebetween the intelligence of adoptive parents and that of their children is curtailed. Question 4 It could be argued that heritability by SES is best retrieved from the hypothesis of a twin study that was carried out in Sweden which was meant to determine if a given population had trace of intelligence / IQ and the level at which the IQ stands. Question 5 According to Nisbett, et al.(2012)scholars have argued that it easy and fulfilling to find specific genesthat are accountable for normal variationalthough, it turned out to be limited. Apparently, 282 individual genes have brought evidence on being responsible for specific forms of mental retardation whileno much effort hasbeen made in finding the genes that contribute to normal variation. As such, scholars are not in a position to establish how to determine the specific gene that is responsible for the normal variation. Question 6 Havingaffirmed that it is indeed difficult to find specific genesthat are responsible for normal variation, different reasons have been given. Firstly, is the genome-wide association studies (GWAS) has scanned the genome for associations between outcomes and variation in individual chromosomal markers that are commonly known as SNPs. As a result, researchers have tried to examine the relation between the actual genetic sequence and intelligence but this has been faced by limitation since the densely packed SNPs with the genes have a complex association. Secondly, there ispossibility that a linear specification of the genetic sequence is not in position to access information that is contained in the genome. As such, statistical interactions or the non- linear association that is present among or between genes and a given environment could distort an effort aimed at understanding intelligence through adding up small effects of many genes. Thirdly, it is most likely that the number of genes that are involved in outcome that is argued to be as complex as intelligence is very large. As such, contribution of any individual locus is less compared to the large number of genes making it very difficult to detect the specific genes. Question 7 Breastfeeding is one of the biological factors that seem to increase the IQ of human beings particularly in early life. Apparently, breastfeeding is thought to increase the IQ to approximately 6 points for newborns with normal weight and by 8 points for infants that are born prematurely. As such, the confounding variables are social class and the IQ of the mother which gives an account for the relationship between breast feeding and IQ. Thus, the human breast milk contains fatty acids that are not present in formula and are known to prevent neurological deficits. Question 8 In this article, two genetic or biological studies have been used to account for some theinfluence of breastfeeding on the child’s intelligence. Nisbett,et al.(2012) articulates that breastfeeding is beneficial to children with two more common alleles regardless of the mother’s social class but did not occur for children who had less allele. Moreover, the animal model study argues that the fatty acids found in breast milk are good in the prevention of neurological deficits. Of importance to note is that the child’s allele is fully responsible for the influence that pertains to IQ through breast feeding. Question 9 In reference to the several studiesthat have been indicated in article, it is believed that adoption has large effect on intelligence (IQ). Apparently, the environmental differences that are associated with social class argue that adopted children have a score of 12 points or more as opposed to those that are not adopted. Furthermore, the studies argue that adoption practically moves children from lower SES homes to those that have higher SES homes. This is because, there are profound differences in the beginning of infancy and the environment between higher SES families and those from lower SES families in relation to influencing intellectual growth that translates to high intelligence levels. Question 10 According to Hart and Risley (1995) study, there is a disparity between high and low home environments. Basically, the researchers have accessed the family environment in establishing the amount of intellectual stimulation that is present. Intellectual stimulation is measured through the extent at which the parenttakes time to converse with the child, how the child utilizes books, magazines among other issues. As a result, the study affirmed that children from high home environments have high exposure level as compared to low home environments where children are less exposed thus they tend to have low IQ. Question 11 According to Nisbett, et al.(2012),twin studies have been argued to overestimate the heritability of intelligence as compared to genuine random sample of all twins in a particular population. This fact is facilitated by the difficulty in recruiting lower SESindividuals for laboratory and test sites. Moreover, studies pertaining to heritability tend to give no information about SES and those that claim to have representative samples of numerous social-class groups that have might have self-selection challenges. Thus, lower SES individuals who decide to volunteer might resemble higher SES individuals on the variables to the overestimation of hereditary effects. Question 12 According to the article, the effect of birth on IQ is that some researchers have argued that birth order for instance firstborns have higher IQs as compared to the later-born children. Additionally, the article articulates that incase a first born in a family dies then the second born is argued to have a higher IQ just like the deceased. The evidence provided to affirm that these effects are social is that the issue of IQ is detected at the adolescence stage. Furthermore, studies have confirmed that birth order on IQ are present due to different environmental experiences ranging from family social class status, neighborhood difference over time, peer association among others. Question 13 School attendance is one of the most crucial activities that is known in increasingIQ scores. To begin with, research has affirmed that children who have been deprived of school for an extend period of time show deficits of IQ for as much as 2SD.Similarly, a child who joins the fifth grade approximately one year earlier than a child of the same age who joins fourth grade is highly likely to experience a Verbal IQ that is more than 5 points as compared to another child at during the year. Additionally, children who do not attend school for one year are said to experience a drop in several points of the IQ. Question 14 Apparently, the effects of early intervention programs on IQ is the they determineif the individuals got them from social or biological factors. The other effect of early intervention program is environments that the child is brought up in. Question 15 Apparently, aerobic exercises affect the aspect of intelligence or IQ through maintenance especially for functions that are executive such as planning, inhibition and scheduling of mental procedures for the elderly. Moreover, the effect that is brought about by the aerobic exercise pertaining to the said responsibilitiesis higher than 0.5 SD for the elderly who range from 65years to 70 or more. Scholars also argue that it is healthy to begin cardiovascular exercises at the age of 70 as they are known to substantially reduce likelihood of Alzheimer’s disease. Question 16 According to the article, Flynn’s research for around 14 nations has made huge IQ gains from one generation to another. As such, countries that were fully modern by the end of the 20th century have indicated an IQ gain of about 3 point in every decade meaning that those that are more modernized have large Flynn effect while those that recently began to modernize have the smallest Flynn effect. The ability that shows the largest effect of Flynn’s effect is modernization. Question 17 According to the Nisbett,et al.(2012)better nutrition is not likely to be the reason for the Flynn effect. This is because the nutrition hypothesis suggests the likelihood of increased IQ gains in the lesser half of the IQ distribution as compared to the greater half due to the assumption that in the past the upper classes were well fed even though deficiencies related to nutrition have drastically reduced. Moreover,it is worth noting that enhancednutrition is unlikely to show positive effect over a period of time on intelligence /IQ but is suggested to have a negative effect on height. Question 18 Infant blacks are more likely to have a smaller gap between the white IQ level and the black IQ level. However, at adult stage (24 years) blacks showed a bigger gap (up to seventeen points below whites). Numerous explanations have been put forward in reference to this such as that the younger cohort (4 years old) have enjoyed a much better environment or life history, or that age affects the intelligent level (Nisbett et al, 2012). Question 19 The two main intelligent test scores that are associated with the prefrontal cortex are the fluid reasoning and executive function of the brain. As such, numerousstudies have indicated the possible damage to the prefrontal cortex affects the fluid reasoning and executive function of the brain and not other functions such as crystallized abilities. Question 20 Neural efficiency hypothesis refers to the way in which the brain reacts when in use. In this regard the neural efficiency hypothesis suggests that high ability individuals require less brain activity to solve mundane problems but increase brain activity while solving advanced problems. Low ability people, according to this hypothesis, have much more brain activity while solving small mundane problems but the brain activity refuses to match the level of complexity of the problem if the complexity of the problem is increased. Question 21 London cab drivers have bigger hippocampi. The hippocampi are known to be useful in navigating three dimensional spaces and this explains why London cab drivers have bigger hippocampi. Not only are cab drivers’ hippocampi bigger than the average normal person, the enlargement is directly proportionate to the length of time they have been in the job. Secondly, the process of learning the skill of juggling increased the gray matter in the brains of the participants. Once the exercise was stopped, the gray matter was also observed to reduce in volume. Thirdly, three months of playing a spacio-visual game showed high levels of thickness in cortial region of the brain of participants. These three phenomenal as indicated in various studies as reported in the article indicated that there was a correlation between intellectual functioning and brain morphology. Question 22 Fluid reasoning With regard to this, women tended to do much better than men with regard to various measures used to measure fluid reasoning. Visio-spatial Men generally scored higher with regard to visio-spacio intelligence. This was found to have evidence both from biological reasons as evidenced by the fact that it was present in very young infants and also in social processes based on the social activities that different genders take. Verbal In general, women tended to have better verbal skills and this can be seen in various ways such as in the way females are more able to person better in language tests. Quantitative abilities Males tended to perform better in quantitative intelligence. Furthermore, scholars have affirmed on average males tend to perform better in mathematics SATs. However, other factors have to be considered in order to take this as indicative of the intelligence differences between the two biological genders. Question 23 Visio-spatial skills are more likely to be useful to the kind of work that requires the understanding of objects from a far distance. Traditionally, males in hunter-gatherer societies were the hunters while the females were mostly gathers. A hunter may have needed these skills (Visio-spatial skill) more than a gatherer could ever do. Thus, it could be argued that the difference in Visio-spatial abilities between genders is mostly due to social as opposed to biological factors. Question 24 Generally, there is notable size difference between the two genders. Males have a brain size that is on average between 8% and 14% bigger than the female brain. However, a closer look does indicate that this may not bring in differences in the level of intelligence for the two genders because size matters most in determining the intelligence of a person. Having a larger brain but poor brain activity may lead to a person with a large brain but low intelligence while a smaller brain with more activity (higher competiveness between brain cells) will lead to a person with a smaller brain but higher intelligence. At the same time, not only is size not the only factor, but other factors such as the various parts of the brain directly influence the level of intelligence. For instance, while females may have relatively smaller brain mass, they tend to have more grey matter than male. Males in the other hand have more white matter than females. The result of these brain differences mean that overall, the intelligence level of both sexes is the same while only having differences when particulates portions of the brain is considered. Question 25 White versus Asian IQs are generally the same. However, Asian seems achieve better in SAT tests as compared to whites. This can be examined in two main ways. First, Asian consider intelligence as a matter of hard work and are therefore more likely to harder towards passing their SATs. At the same time, due to the Asian culture that supports more parental control on their young ones, the Asian parents are more able to exert pressure on their children to work harder to do well in these SATs than white parents are. The other factor that may be used to explain this difference is the fact that immigration laws and policies in the US have supported the influx of Asian with better genetic makeup especially with regard to intellectual abilities. This means that the Asian American population may have a better advantage over the Caucasians Americans population with regard to this issue of intelligence abilities. Question 26 Individual multiplier explains how genetic factors can be related to environmental factors with regard to how they interplay in determining the outcome. For instance, when twins are separated at birth, their genetic closeness is likely to determine the kind of environment they are going to spend their lives on despite the different din geographical location. Social multiplier on the other hand refers to the social factors that lead to an increase in a genetic improvement. Question 27 Although studies did not indicate a connection between fluid and vocabulary mastery, they indicated a relationship between fluid abilities and academic knowledge as well as quantitative abilities. Other studies as done by McArdle indicated that although fluid does not affect crystallized abilities, they do affect memory. Memory in turn is associated with crystallized abilities. Question 28 In the first operationalization, participants were tested at four years old and were given the opportunity to decide between eating a marshmallow or delay the gratification so they can eat two marshmallows later. The same participant were later followed up to determine how they performed in their college entrance SAT, many years later. The second operationalization involved eight grade students who were give an envelope with a dollar in it, they could either choose to spend the dollar or give it back in order to receive two dollars two weeks later. Both of this studies indicated that those who able to self -regulate and delay gratification in order to get better results later were more successful academically and across a number of mental faculties. Question 29 Low-income households are more likely to have stressed individuals Individuals affiliated to minimal stress are more likely to self-regulate. Self-regulation is in turn associated with higher intelligence levels. Babies whose mother were pregnant during the 9/11 period are more likely to have lower intelligence than those were born slightly before or after. Question 30 Better social economic life Better self-regulation Better quality of life Bibliography Nisbett, E.R et al. (2012). Intelligence New Findings and Theoretical Developments. American Psychological Association, 67, 2, , PP. 130–159. Read More