Introduction to Forensic Psychology - Essay Example

Criminality Theories The question whether criminal behaviour is set by default or by design has been answered by many scholars in the recent past. However, the responses have been too varied. While some stressed on the biological aspects ranging from heredity and chromosome, some others described the psychological features, and for yet another category, it is the society and environment that is the key in deciding ones criminal nature. However, the answers only could explain certain aspects, and no one was conclusive enough to reject other theories. Still, as it is reported (Howitt, 2009), black males are more likely to commit crimes as compared to white males. Admittedly, the reason can lie anywhere from genetics, psychology, or sociology. From a thorough scrutiny, it becomes evident that criminals can be made. Though genetics undeniably has a role in developing an inclination towards crime, social and environmental factors play an important role in cultivating the criminal traits in a person through defective socialisation and also in eliciting the criminal nature out of a person. Admittedly, law enforcement agencies have understood the importance of both biology and environment in making someone a criminal. To illustrate, according to Bartol &Bartol (2011, pp.82-83), there are both dynamic and static risk factors. The dynamic factors are the ones that change over time and situation; and some examples of such factors are association with deviant peers, mood swings, emotional arousal, alcohol, and other drug induced effects (ibid). The static factors are the factors that are unlikely to change and are set by nature; and they include factors like genetic predisposition to crime (ibid). Admittedly, a look into the various psychological theories of crime proves that all the theories admit that though biology has a role in making criminal tendency in someone, social and environmental factors play a more important role in making someone actually commit a crime. To begin with, the Psychoanalytic theory of Freud points out that all humans have criminal tendencies in them. In order to present this idea, Freud divides human mind into three spheres; Id, Ego, and Superego. The Id is the very basis of all human tendencies that is in full play in ones childhood. This Id is rather animal-like desires of humans towards everything ranging from food, sex, and all other comforts of life. However, as one grows, there is socialisation which results in the suppression of this primordial Id through the development of inner controls. According to Freud (1961, pp.1-59), the most important factor that leads to criminal behaviour is faulty identification by children with their parents. It is observed that if children are improperly socialised, they develop personality disturbances. In such cases, the children develop antisocial impulses. Those who demonstrate these impulses outward become criminals; and those who direct these inward become neurotics (ibid). To explain further, according to Freud’s perspective, a perfect personality is the combination of Id, ego, and superego. In other words, it is a balancing of ones own primordial desires, and the needs and controls of society. However, when a threat arises at a very serious level, there arises intense inhibitions and reactions. According to Freud, humans are basically defensive. However, in the absence of such a defense, the Id shows its power by unleashing violence and aggression making a person a criminal. Thus, according to Freud, all humans are born criminals if biology is taken into account. So, it is only the society or environment that decides whether a person becomes a criminal. In other words, it is the social conditioning that decides if a person shows his criminal side. It also indicates that if social values are strongly instilled in a person from the very beginning of ones life, one will be able to better control ones criminal tendencies (ibid). In total, according to Freudian concept, traumatic experiences in ones childhood will have a serious impact on ones mind even though the person is not aware of those experiences. Thus, from the discussion, it becomes evident that according to Freud, both biology and life experiences are influencing factors. However, biology is a stable factor that is the same for all people, and it is the life experiences that decide if a person becomes a criminal or not. To sum up, one can become a criminal according to Freud. The next important theory is the Constitutional Learning theory as propounded by Wilson and Herrnstein. According to them, both criminal and noncriminal behaviours have advantages and disadvantages. If the benefits of committing a crime outweigh the demerits according to a person, the person is likely to commit that crime. In addition, the scholars put forward two more important points that influence the decision to commit a crime. They are time discounting and equity. The term time discounting means the amount of time saved in earning the reward by committing the crime as compared to the time required to accomplish the same by noncriminal means. Also, it means the immediate rewards as a result of committing the crime compared to the punishment as a result of the crime. In addition, some people commit crime as a response to the perceived injustice they face in the society. However, there are various factors that decide how a person weighs the advantages and disadvantages in committing a crime. Some such factors are education, intelligence, and physiological arousal (Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985, p.234). Here again, it becomes evident that poor socialisation and poor education are factors that lead to criminal behaviour. The simplest of all theories that show the role of society, or that shows that a criminal can be made, is the Conflict Theory of Karl Marx. According to the theory, there are two major social groups in every society; the ruling class and the subject class. As the ruling class has control of the means of production, it exploits the subject class, and, conflict arises. Thus, Karl Marx proved that this conflict can be the motivation behind a number of crimes (Howitt, 2009). Another important theory in this connection is the Cognitive Development theory. According to this concept, criminal behaviour is often the result of the way people arrange their thoughts about morality and law. One of the main advocates of this concept is Lawrence Kohlberg. According to his theory, there are three levels of moral reasoning, and each level has two stages. The explanation is that during middle childhood, children reach the first level of moral development which is called the ‘pre-conventional level’. At this level, the concept of morality is based on avoiding punishment and showing obedience. By the end of middle childhood, children reach the ‘conventional level’ of moral development where children have their morality based on the expectations their family and other important people have for them. The last level is called the ‘post-conventional level’ that is often reached at the beginning of adulthood. At this level, people are able to understand and like the social norms, and at the same time, they possess the ability to think beyond such norms and are capable of changing or improving them (Kohlberg, 1876, p.71). People who fail to go through all these stages fail to get their morality developed properly, and their possibility of becoming delinquents increases. There are a number of studies conducted to assess the rationality of Freudian claim. In one such study by Bowlby (Cited in Howitt, 2009), 44 juvenile delinquents were compared against control juveniles. It was found that while 39% of the delinquents had complete separation from their mothers for six months or more in the first five years of their lives, for the control group, the percentage was just 5% (ibid). Thus, it becomes evident that early childhood socialisation has a vital role in deciding whether one becomes a criminal or not Highly supportive is the study by Wansell (1997, p.160) that pointed out that emotional or physical abuse in childhood can lead to criminal behaviour as it is evident in the case of Fredrick and Rosemary who were serial killers. Similarly, there is the study by Dietz and Warren (1995, p.18) that 76% of the serial rapists they studied were victims of abuse when they were young. Thus, it becomes evident that one can become a criminal due to childhood trauma and defective socialisation. However, the only contradicting factor is that not all people who were abused in early childhood, and not all who were poorly socialised in the early years, become criminals in later life. This only reveals that along with early childhood trauma as explained by Freud, there are many more factors that decide if one man becomes a criminal or not. Another study showing the role of parental care and socialisation in developing criminal behaviour is the one by McCord & McCord (1959, p.169). The study reached the conclusion that discipline imposed; either in a friendly way or in a punitive way, can reduce criminality. In addition, the scholars opined that lax discipline is more likely to result in higher possibility of criminality. However, when the punishment is erratically punitive, the possibility of developing criminal behaviour increases (ibid). Admittedly, the study goes in almost the same direction of the Freudian concept. According to Freud, proper parenting and proper socialisation are the keys to learning proper balancing of id, ego, and superego. Admittedly, the discipline imposed by parents is one of the earliest stages of socialisation. When there is proper socialisation through parent-imposed discipline, the possibility of criminal behaviour decreases. However, when there is lax discipline, proper socialisation does not take place, and the result is criminal behaviour. Lastly, it is pointed out by Freud that when there is a serious threat, the entire system that keeps id under control collapses, giving birth to criminality. The same is the finding by McCord & McCord (1959, p.169) that erratically punitive discipline results in higher criminality. In other words, erratically imposed discipline seems like a threat to children. In total, it becomes evident that though biology might have a role in making some people more inclined towards committing crime, the real trigger, and the main variable factor, is society and socialisation. In other words, a man can become a criminal because of various factors other than biological factors like early childhood trauma, poor socialisation, lax discipline, erratically punitive discipline, and, as the constitutional learning theory suggests, based on the comparative advantages and disadvantages of criminal and noncriminal ways. That means, again, the society that decides punishment is the main factor behind criminal behaviour. References Bartol, CR & Bartol, AM 2011, Introduction to Forensic Psychology: Research and Application, SAGE Publications, USA. Dietz, PE & Warren, JI & Olshaker JS (Ed) 1995, Forensic Emergency Medicine, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, USA. Freud, S 1961, The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Vintage Classics, Britain. Howitt, D 2009, Introduction to Forensic & Criminal Psychology, Pearson Education, England. Kohlberg, L 1876, ‘Moral stages and moralisation: The cognitive-developmental approach to socialisation’, in Snowman J, McCown, R & Biehler, R, Psychology Applied to Teaching, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, USA. McCord, WM & McCord, J 1959, Origins of Crime: A New Evaluation of the Cambridge-Somerville Youth Study, Columbia University Press, USA. Wilson, JQ & Herrnstein, RJ 1985, Crime & Human Nature: The Definitive Study of the Causes of Crime, The Free Press, USA. Wansell, G 1997, An Evil Love: The Life of Frederick West, Headline Book Publishing, London. Read More