Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, Jean Piagets Development Theories - Research Paper Example

Running Head: Development Theories Development Theories Development, as defined by the Cognitive or Social Development of a Child (2008), entails a continuous, progressive change that one undergoes. This means that, long before we could talk, from the moment of our conception, we have already and will constantly experience growth and evolution. Psychologists characterize it further as a total process encompassing the physical, mental, social, emotional and moral aspects of our being, all of which must experience well-balanced development to ensure a well-rounded personality. Prior to that, children had been treated as simply miniature adults for a long time, and it was only in the early 20th century – in other words, fairly recently – that child development in particular was explored by theorists. Among the most popular of these theorists are Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Jean Piaget, whose theories will be the focus of this research paper. Their theories shall be discussed in detail – focuses, strengths, weaknesses – and will also be compared and contrasted. Sigmund Freud: Psychosexual Development Sigmund Freud’s research focuses mainly on sexual desires and libido, dating back to the late 19th-early 20th centuries when he first developed the concept of psychoanalysis. The key point of his tenets is that humans are driven by their instincts and innate sexual urges (libido), which would determine their behavior regardless of repression. Specifically, even if one represses his libido, it will instead manifest in other ways – for instance, one may sate his sexual desires by pushing himself in his work. Humans, he says, are polymorphously perverse, capable of deriving sexual pleasure – or in cruder terms, getting off – from practically anything and everything (Psychosexual Development, 2010). Specifically, children are said to undergo five psychosexual stages, each with its own erogenous zone (henceforth referred to as e-zone) which the id focuses on; any trauma suffered during one of the first three stages – the oral, anal, and phallic stages – may result in fixation of that particular stage’s e-zone (Feist and Feist, 2007), which Freud connects with adult personalities and personality disorders. Locke (2009) cites Edward Cullen, a character from the popular vampire romance series Twilight, as an example of repression and fixation. He is said to have been sired at the age of seventeen – the genital phase of development – and is neither come to terms with his (biological) parents’ death nor been able to fully mature into an adult. Thus, while he is chronologically a hundred years old, he remains stuck, psychologically as well as physically, as a seventeen year-old. This could be a possible explanation for his more questionable acts stemming from his obsession with Bella, the female lead – such as watching over her in her sleep. The first stage of psychosexual development is the oral phase, which is usually a child’s first 18-24 months of life. This stage’s e-zone, as the name implies, is the mouth. At this point, children are obsessed with sucking and feeding, the restriction of which translates into pessimism, envy, suspicion and sarcasm as an adult. Overindulgence, on the other hand, results in gullibility, optimism, and admiration for others. Either way, those fixated at this stage tend to eat, drink, or even smoke too much. Moreover, as Felluga (2003) adds, the Oedipus and Electra complexes that are readily apparent at the phallic phase in fact date back to the oral phase. Following the oral phase is the anal phase, which, according to Ridgway (2007), focuses on the anus as children learn to control their impulse to relieve themselves, and usually sets in within 1-3 years old. And just as with the oral phase, the degree to which children are disciplined by their parents with regard to excretion has noticeable effects in one’s adult behavior. When parents are too strict with their children at this stage, they become anal-retentive and end up exhibiting obsessive-compulsive behaviors – or, more seriously, obsessive-compulsive disorder – later on. In fact, that obsessive-compulsive people are described as ‘anal’ is due to this stage. These individuals become too preoccupied with issues of cleanliness, neatness and order, not to mention passive-aggressive in their dealings with others. On the other extreme, excessively lax discipline will result in a child becoming anal-expulsive, usually relieving himself on his first chance regardless of timing. This in turn translates into reckless, careless, defiant, and disorganized behavior as adults. Since neither extreme is particularly appealing, parents must take care to be moderate in rearing their child during this period (Ridgway, 2007). Next is the phallic phase, occurring between 2-4 years of age. This stage’s e-zone is one’s genitals, and is also the stage where the Oedipus (for males) or Electra complex (for females) from the oral phase becomes more readily apparent. Boys become more attached and attracted to their mothers; girls, to their fathers – and in both cases, the child ends up unconsciously wishing for the other parent to disappear. Left unresolved, these complexes cause one to seek out a partner most like his or her parents. Freud acknowledged that this stage is especially problematic because of the said complexes - he probably experienced the Oedipus complex himself, having based this theory of development on his own experiences growing up (Ridgway, 2007). The penultimate latency phase, meanwhile, occurs when one is 6-12 years old – in other words, when he has started going to school. This is the stage wherein we begin to cultivate relationships with people of same and opposite gender alike, and is one where overt sexual activity is noticeably absent. Beyond those years, one enters the terminal genital phase. This is where interest in the opposite sex sets in, and usually where sexual activity and promiscuity becomes more and more of a possibility. This fact is also acknowledged by various cultures all over the world, which all recognize such a period as the time one is expected to fully mature. And finally, as noted several times earlier, this is also when the consequences of parenting during the earlier stages can be observed (Ridgway, 2007). Basically, the whole point of the psychosexual theory is this: how we end up as adults depends less on the morals imparted to us by our parents and more on the adequate (or inadequate) satisfaction of our physical urges as children. This makes some sense, but must also be considered along with other aspects of development, such as the moral, social, and cognitive aspects. More idealistic people would also argue that Freud’s characterization of human beings as being little more than animals driven by primal instincts and sexual urges is somewhat hard to swallow. Feminists in particular have denounced such ideas as misogynist, as evidenced by Karen Horney’s dissent towards Freud’s tenets (Feist and Feist, 2007). This in turn brings us to Erik Erikson and his Theory of Psychosocial Development. Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development It can be seen at a glance that this and the above theory have more than a few similarities, which is intentional – Erikson actually based his theory on Freud’s, though disbelieved that personality was dictated by sexuality alone. When time had passed, Erikson even rejected Freud’s view on women (Allen, 2000). Unlike Freud’s theory, this one states that one’s personality develops well into adult life, with each state involving conflict of some sort. The first stage, presumably from one’s birth, deals with the conflict of trust vs. mistrust. The ego is described as having a never-ending task of developing trust, which in turn depends on a toddler’s relationship with his mother. This child is also said to freely allow the mother out of his or her sight due to her perceived inner certainty and outer predictability. However, this should not suggest that the mother alone will affect the child’s development; other adults also matter (Allen, 2000). The next stage, meanwhile, deals with autonomy vs. shame and doubt. One denied autonomy at this stage will end up hating himself, especially considering that shame develops with one’s self-consciousness, and will also affect one’s views of economic and political justice later on. Fletcher and Branen (2010) also add that development during this stage centers on a child and his feeding habits. That is, if this child is allowed to feed himself regardless of the mess, eating how, when, and how much food he pleases, autonomy is encouraged to develop. Following this is the stage of initiative vs. guilt, which is all about taking risks. That is, if a child is willing to try new things, this sense of initiative is developed. This is closely related to the previous stage as it also entails the child’s choices being taken into account, and is also mostly centered on feeding habits. At this stage, parents are advised to heed a child who says that he is full, or that he likes or dislikes a certain food. Children should also be encouraged to get their own food so as to determine how much they want to eat, using utensils appropriate for their size as opposed to adult-sized ones. Middle childhood, meanwhile, centers on industry vs. inferiority. This is where children develop a certain belief in their own abilities, that they are capable of doing certain things. It helps development at this stage if children are allowed to act on cues they determine for himself; if a child, for example, is bored, he should be allowed to decide what he wants to do rather than have his parents or guardians decide for him. In any case, what is most discouraged is that rigid requirements are imposed on a child, especially during mealtimes. Such requirements tend to make a child feel that he is voiceless and that his opinions are unimportant. As already mentioned, psychosocial development is said to extend well into adulthood, but these are the stages that specifically apply and are observable during childhood. As can be seen, the seemingly petty degree of choice a child is allowed (or denied) determines what he becomes in later life. Thus, while parents mean well, they must take care not to smother or coddle their child too much. Jean Piaget: Cognitive Development Basically, Piaget believed that intelligence constantly developed throughout life, but that exactly how it did so would vary. His theory operates on the accurate determination that, contrary to what was thought at the time, children are not merely little adults (Child Development Institute, 2010). In fact, they are said to be incapable of adult reasoning until age 15 since it is only between late adolescence to early adulthood that the brain fully develops. Thus, this theory is important in order for parents to have realistic expectations of their child. The first period of development is the sensory-motor period, said to take place within a child’s first 2 years. A child’s actions start out as reflexive behaviors grasping, sucking, and opening/closing their fingers. Over time, these simple behaviors will evolve to secondary circular reactions, where actions are repeated over and over to produce interesting consequences. These actions will also eventually become more complex as children discover new ways of doing things (Beilin, 1992). The next period, the pre-operational period, takes place between 2-7 years old, and is divided into the pre-operational and intuitive phases. The former phase is characterized by the increased use of verbal representation and somewhat egocentric speech – presumably because children are only just starting to talk – as well as symbolic motor play and the ability to conceptualize an object despite its absence. The intuitive phase, meanwhile, sees speech become more social and less egocentric, with the child developing a more intuitive grasp of logic in some areas. The period of concrete operations, meanwhile, will see a child’s thoughts become more logical and organized. Thinking will also become more transductive and less egocentric, allowing concrete problem-solving. Finally the formal operations period (12++) is characterized by more abstract thought and more formal logic, with one’s thinking no longer constrained by reality (Beilin, 1992). Main Points, Comparison and Contrast of Theories – Similarities and Differences Piaget’s theory seems to coincide with Freud’s and Erikson’s theories, neither supporting nor contradicting them. In fact, the three share the same assumption that children are often absorbed on one thing or another at various points in their lives: their libido (Freud, though his theory applies this to everyone and not just children), their parents/parental figures (Erikson), and themselves as they learn and explore the world around them (Piaget). Also, all three agree that children develop with age, instead of possessing the same mental and emotional capacity of adults from the start. Differences, meanwhile, include the focus (Piaget – cognitive development; Freud – sexuality; Erikson – social dimensions), as well as the durations of each stages. For example, while Freud focused more intently on the first five stages of his psychosexual development, Erikson took time to discuss the details of the later psychosocial stages. Not to mention, while Freud believed that what we are as human beings was largely instinctual and immutable, Erikson and Piaget seemed to agree that we do in fact have a measure over how we/our children turn out. Conclusion Regardless of such differences, each of these theories allows one to better understand how a child’s mind works. Since a child does not have the same capacities as an adult, we must go down to his level to gain understanding of his mindset. This should not be so hard, given that we were all once children ourselves, but is usually forgotten. If our children are to develop into well-rounded, fully mature members of society, we need to first make sure that our expectations of them are realistic and appropriate for their age. Unrealistic expectations will only result in unnecessary anxiety and disappointment, more so for the child than for the parent. References Allen, B. P. (2000) Personality theories 3rd ed. Boston. Allyn and Bacon Beilin, H. (1992). Piagets enduring contribution to developmental psychology. Developmental Psychology, 28(2), 191-204. Child Development Institute. (2010). Stages of intellectual development in children and teenagers. Retrieved March 3, 2010 from http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/piaget.shtml Cognitive or Social Development of a Child (2008). Online Education Blog. Updated 2008. Retrieved March 3, 2010 from http://www.educationguideonline.net/cognitive-or-social-development-of-a-child/ Feist, J. and Feist, G. J. (2007) Stages of Development. Theories of Personality 6th ed. NYC, NY: McGraw-Hill. 39-47 Felluga, D. (2003) Modules on Freud: On psychosexual development. Purdue University. Retrieved March 3, 2010 from http://www.cla.purdue.edu/academic/engl/theory/psychoanalysis/freud.html Fletcher, J. and Branen, L. (2010). Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages: Application for children’s eating skills development. University of Idaho. Locke, A. (2009). Immortal fixation. Theocrit: The Online Journal of Undergraduate Literary Criticism and Theory, 1(1), 62-68. Psychosexual development (2010). Retrieved March 3, 2010 from http://nosubject.com/Psychosexual_development Ridgway, I. Ph. D (2007). Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). 2221 Theory & Practice 1: Lecture 3 Read More