How Childhood Abuse Effects the Child as He/She Grows into Adulthood - Essay Example

How childhood abuse affects the child as he/she grows into adulthood Abstract Child abuse holds immediate, short-term and long-term negative consequences for the child. The definition of child abuse is somewhat unclear and the effects are mixed but without question abuse is a detriment to children, families and ultimately, to society as a whole. Once defined, its prevalence is surprising but its long-term effects are incriminating. Where can you find a heart that has not been tainted by the horrors of the world in which we live? For most, the first and last place to look would be to the small child. However, even this innocence is under threat simply because the love, respect, protection and understanding that children once had are under attack. Child abuse in various forms, shapes, sizes and manners is one of the fastest spreading epidemics. Its greatest effects are that of corrupting innocence, inflicting pain and imparting fear to a heart that only wants the love and protection that it is supposed to be due. ‘Child neglect’ or ‘child abuse’ is an ambiguous and all-encompassing term used to describe actions perpetrated by parents on children which are universally deemed harmful by society and as defined by law. Many degrees of child neglect exist within two main categories, emotional/psychological and physical. Historically speaking, child neglect is a relatively new concept and its meaning is in a constant state of evolution. This paper provides a brief historical perspective and examines the present definition(s) held by Western society as well as the types, risk factors and prevalence of incidence but the main concern lies with the consequences of child abuse and neglect. Until the early nineteenth century, child neglect was more or less a way of life, especially for poor children. The terminology may be a new concept but the practice is long-lived. Throughout the history of mankind, children have been abandoned, killed, mutilated, kidnapped, raped, jailed and otherwise exploited in various ways. For example, children during colonial times in America were regularly beaten with whips because this practice was thought an important aspect of instilling discipline. Until the early nineteenth century, very young children regularly were forced to work more than 12 hours a day, six or seven days per week in mills, factories and mines (Daro, 1988). At the time, neither whipping nor forced labor was considered child abuse or neglect and children had no recourse but to endure what today would be considered horrific living conditions. Largely because of the labor movement in the mid-1900s, many states enacted laws that defined child neglect, required health care workers to report suspected neglect cases and outline punishment for offenders (McCurdy & Daro, 1994). Congress gave a formal definition to neglect and stipulated actions states must take so that children would be protected from abuses when it ratified the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act in 1974. That federally mandated legal definition of neglect is as follows: “The physical and mental injury, sexual abuse, neglected treatment or maltreatment of a child under age 18 by a person who is responsible for the child’s welfare under circumstances which indicate the child’s health and welfare is harmed and threatened thereby, as determined in accordance with regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare” (“Child Protection Act”, 1974). Sexual abuse is forcing or enticing a child or young person to take part in sexual activities, whether or not the child is aware of what is happening. The activities may involve physical contact, non-contact activities, production of pornographic material or watching sexual activities, or encouraging children to behave in sexually inappropriate ways. Child sexual abuse can occur within or outside of the family. However, a large proportion of abusers are fathers, stepfathers, grandfathers, brothers and uncles. Women also abuse children sexually, but current figures report a low percentage of female sexual abusers compared to male sexual abusers. The legal definition stipulates that only parents, legal guardians or caregivers can perpetrate child neglect. The same type of abuses committed by any other individual whether relative, friend or stranger is considered an assault by legal definition unless the child is being cared for by that relative or friend at the request of the legal guardian. In addition, this Act includes in its definition both physical neglect and mental harm. A clear definition of neglect has been the subject of much debate since the 1974 Act was signed into law and will likely continue for a long time to come because every alleged neglect situation is different and societal standards of decency are constantly in a mode of adjustment. Another aspect of the debate is to what extent the government should be allowed to intervene in the private family lives of American families. Some suggest that the government should narrowly define neglect leaving no room for state bureaucrats to make personal judgment calls and that only under clearly defined circumstances should the government be allowed to intervene in family concerns. Those narrow definitions being if the child has observable wounds that resulted from the actions of a parent or caregiver. Others, however, invite government involvement and advocate flexibility for child welfare workers because of the many variables that are present in neglect situations. These individuals feel that because children can be seriously harmed and/or emotionally scarred for a lifetime by neglect, this more than justifies outside intervention (Costin et al, 1997). The quest for a more explicit definition of child neglect led to studies regarding the number of neglected children in the U.S. It is estimated that nearly 900,000 children were victims of neglect in 1994 but the exact number can never be known (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2006). These estimates are based on surveys and statistics from child protective service offices but not all neglect cases are reported or admitted to on surveys. “While the exact number of children who are maltreated is unknown, the data derived from surveys and official reports provide an emerging picture of the extent of child maltreatment in U.S. society that suggests many more resources are needed to address its causes and effects” (Sedlak & Broadhurst, 1996). Many influences determine whether a child may be considered ‘at risk’ for neglect. The personality and past experiences of the parent, the family’s economic circumstances and the temperament of the child all are contributing factors to the overall health of the home life. Parents who were themselves victims of neglect, have psychological issues, monetary problems or believe in stern discipline techniques beyond what is commonly considered acceptable are ‘at risk’ for neglecting their children. The child’s gender and age are also factors that could heighten the possibility for neglect. Though cases of neglect are found in every socioeconomic circumstance, a disproportionate number emanate from low-income families. However, emotional and sexual abuse is not as closely linked to the family’s financial status (Finkelhor, 1986). National studies have found that families who subsist in low socioeconomic conditions are strongly correlated to incidences of child neglect. Though this correlation is not fully understood, the additional frustrations and stress that come from living in poverty may, in combination with a more severe approach to methods of punishment by some, increase the chance that physical violence will occur in the home. Those more susceptible to neglect include girls, young children, infants and children who have less than affable temperaments. Babies who suffer neglect from being shaken are an all too common occurrence. This form of neglect commonly causes brain damage and death. Instances of neglected infants are more likely to be reported to child services than are the abuses of older children (Sedlak & Broadhurst, 1996). Children do not always suffer negative lifetime effects as a result of neglect. The type of neglect (duration, severity and frequency), child’s age, relationship with parents and psychological/emotional make-up all vary extensively from case to case (Chalk, Gibbons & Scarupa, 2002). Children possess varying abilities to deal with neglect. Some are exceedingly resilient and even thrive after experiencing neglect. Children who are generally optimistic, have a sense of humor, are independent in nature, have a high intellect and high level of self esteem have a better chance to overcome negative experiences. Other factors such as access to a supportive adult, the stability of the surrounding community and degree of health care access are described ‘protective factors’ that can be helpful in alleviating long-term adverse consequences of child neglect (Thomlison, 1997). Research that has been conducted regarding how the prevalence of violence in the family affects the lives of children suggests that this phenomenon is a critical public health concern. In 1992, state agencies across the U.S. reported over 200,000 incidents of child abuse and half that number of child sexual abuse cases. “It has been estimated that about 1 in 5 female children and 1 in 10 male children may experience sexual molestation. At least 1,200 children died as a result of maltreatment” (Regier & Cowdry, 1995). Incidences of domestic violence, a growing problem in the U.S., affect the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral development of children, produces disharmony in the family unit and instigates harmful lifetime problems for all concerned. Child neglect has been proven to cause the vital regions of the brain to develop improperly. This results in diminished emotional, mental and physical development which causes a wide-array of maladies. “The stress of chronic abuse causes a ‘hyper-arousal’ response by certain areas of the brain, which may result in hyperactivity, sleep disturbances, and anxiety, as well as increased vulnerability to post-traumatic stress disorder, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and learning and memory difficulties” (Dallam, 2001). Neglected children often suffer from feelings of fear, isolation and lose their ability to trust in others which transforms into an increased chance for developing psychological disorders including depression and perceptions of low self-worth, effects which could last a lifetime. Studies have concluded that most children that suffer from neglectful circumstances exhibit deficiencies in emotional and mental health as compared to those that were not. One study found up to 80 percent of those that had been neglected as children were diagnosed with no less than one psychiatric condition by the age of 21. Their psychological problems included anxiety, depression, thoughts of suicide and eating disorders among others (Silverman, Reinherz & Gia According to the 2003 National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being, children who had to be removed from a neglectful home environment placed lower than average when tested on their cognitive aptitudes and language skills which lowered their ability to succeed academically (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2003). Neglected children, to a much greater extent than others, find difficulty interacting socially. “Children who are abused and neglected by caretakers often do not form secure attachments to them. These early attachment difficulties can lead to later difficulties in relationships with other adults as well as with peers” (Morrison, Frank, Holland, & Kates, 1999). Victims of child neglect have higher incidences of behavioral problems too. Behavioral issues intensify during the teenage years which lead to acts of abusive behavior and acts of delinquency as juveniles and more severe types of offenses as adults. It also increases the likelihood of drug and alcohol abuse. When exposed to threatening or brutal emotional and/or physical treatment, children experience traumatic stress disorders that require exceptional coping skills. Instances of domestic violence are usually unanticipated and uncontrollable which serve to devastate a family member’s sense of well-being and security. Negative effects that could damage a person’s psyche for a lifetime may result from a one-time occurrence and worsens from prolonged exposure to traumatic experiences involving family violence. “With repeated exposure to traumatic events, a proportion of individuals may develop Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Most people who suffer from PTSD (especially, in severe cases) have considerable interpersonal and academic and occupational problems” (Meichenbaum, 1994). Children of pre-adolescent age, unlike younger children, typically have greater ability to verbalize negative sentiments. Victims within this age group, in addition to symptoms commonly associated with anxiety such as nightmares and sleeping and eating disorders, may exhibit a low self esteem. This generally results in a social withdrawal, avoiding contact with others and displaying a rebellious, disobedient behavior in school. Pre-teens of abusive situations have an increased propensity for temper tantrums, are often involved in fist fighting, abuse animals and act in threatening manners. This violent behavior mirrors what they see at home and is an attempt to gain attention. Teenagers of abusive house-holds are at much greater risk than those who are not to drop-out of school and abuse drugs. Research has suggested that a history of family violence is the most noteworthy reason that separates antisocial and ‘normal’ youths. According to a study report authored by Dr. Terence P. Thornberry, children with histories of violence in their families report a 24 percent increase in the level of violent behavior they participate in as compared with their peers living in non-violent homes. “Other analyses of these data indicate that maltreatment is also a significant risk factor for official delinquency and other forms of self-reported delinquency; for the prevalence and frequency of delinquency; and for all these indicators when gender, race/ethnicity, family structure; and social class are held constant” (Thornberry, 1994). Abused children are at considerably higher risk than others to act out in a delinquent manner, abuse drugs, drop-out of school, and experience difficulties in relationships with family and friends. All of these dynamics combine to disrupt the family unit. Children of differing ages exhibit a broad range of responses from exposure to violence within their family. Children of preschool and kindergarten age seldom understand why they are being abused. They usually tend to think that they have done something wrong and this self-blame can advance feelings of worry, guilt and apprehension. Younger children in general do not have the intellectual or emotional capability to sufficiently articulate their opinions verbally. Because of this, the expressions of these emotions are often behavioral in nature. “Children may become withdrawn, non-verbal, and exhibit regressed behaviors such as clinging and whining. Eating and sleeping difficulty, concentration problems, generalized anxiety, and physical complaints are all common” (Graham-Bermann, 1994). Children of pre-adolescent age, unlike younger children, typically have greater ability to verbalize negative sentiments. Victims within this age group, in addition to symptoms commonly associated with anxiety such as nightmares and sleeping and eating disorders, may exhibit a low self esteem. This generally results in a social withdrawal, avoiding contact with others and displaying a rebellious, disobedient behavior in school. Pre-teens of abusive situations have an increased propensity for temper tantrums, are often involved in fighting, abuse animals and act in threatening manners. This violent behavior mirrors what they see at home and is an attempt to gain attention. Teenagers of abusive house-holds are at much greater risk than those who are not to drop-out of school and abuse drugs. Research has suggested that a history of family violence is the most noteworthy reason that separates antisocial and ‘normal’ youths. “An estimated 1/5 to 1/3 of all teenagers who are involved in dating relationships are regularly abusing or being abused by their partners verbally, mentally, emotionally, sexually, and/or physically. Between 30 and 50 percent of dating relationships can exhibit the same cycle of escalating violence as marital relationships” (Sexual Assault Survivor Services, 1996). Though child neglect and abuse in most every instance occurs within the family unit, its impact extends to the whole of society. Society pays for child neglect in direct as well as indirect ways. Direct expenditures include costs involved in the maintenance of child protective services who investigates claims of child neglect. Additionally, the judicial system, law enforcement and health facilities must respond to and care for neglected children and intervene in the family situation. A report by Prevent Child Abuse America in 2001 estimated that the annual cost of child neglect at $24 billion. Indirect expense takes into account the long-term consequences of child neglect which includes drug and alcohol abuse, domestic violence, criminal actions and mental illness. These expenses also include counting the loss of production due to underemployment or unemployment and the increased cost of many other social services over a person’s lifetime. The indirect costs are estimated by Prevent Child Abuse America to exceed $70 billion every year (Prevent Child Abuse America, 2001) Incidences of child abuse, a growing problem in the U.S., affect the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral development of children, produces disharmony in the family unit and instigates harmful lifetime problems for all concerned. Children of differing ages exhibit a broad range of responses from exposure to violence within their family. Children of preschool and kindergarten age seldom understand why they are being abused. They usually tend to think that they have done something wrong and this self-blame can advance feelings of worry, guilt and apprehension. Younger children in general do not have the intellectual or emotional capability to sufficiently articulate their opinions verbally. Because of this, the expressions of these emotions are often behavioral in nature. During the past century, a national awareness and resulting desire to curb the instances and affects of child neglect has emerged which has caused legislation to be enacted. The definition of neglect and degree to which the government should be involved has been a subject of much debate and research. The long-term effects of child neglect varies depending on the level of neglect and degree to which the child is resilient but unquestionably, it negatively affects the child both in the present and future, their family and the whole of society. 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