Why Is Linking Serial Offences not an Exact Science - Assignment Example

Serial Offences Why is linking serial offences not an exact science Critically examine this view using real examples to illustrate your points. A serial offender is one who commits repetitive offending acts. The term is normally used to refer to violent acts of rape and/or murder. The phrase 'serial killer' was first used in the seventies by Robert Ressler, FBI Agent. A 'serial' killer is a person who has murdered three or more persons. There may be a cooling off period between incidents. There tends to be a similarity in the murders-in the manner in which they are done, and there also could be similarities in the victims. Having defined the term, one must necessarily add that that there are several more definitions based on the number of victims. The insistence on the number of victims being a minimum of three poses a problem in that it may be viewed more as a counting exercise rather than the indicator of a particular state of mind! As stated by Mouzos & West: "a killer who murders two victims and is apprehended by police prior to committing additional murders, and who exhibits the same or similar characteristics as one who kills five, is also important to our understanding of this phenomenonThe ability of law enforcement agencies and the wider community to understand and manage the risk posed by the serial killer is intrinsically linked to a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of the individual and the motivating factors."(Serial Murder-Australia, 2007) Mouzos & West suggest that further study should be done on those who commit two instead of more murders, and this can be compared with studies already done of the motivations of serial killers. This would lead to an understanding of why-apart from being caught-those who stop at two murders on separate occasions do so. (Serial Murder-Australia, 2007) The task of linking serial offences cannot be an exact science in the way Physics or Chemistry are, because of the human element involved. Any study of human volition cannot be exact, however much that study may claim to depend on precise mathematical formulae or other measurements. It is the ability to predict, which may be considered as the basis for categorizing a science as exact (pure science) or inexact (humanities). Linking serial offences can ultimately only indicate likelihood rather than certainty, because this involves human volition-both in the commission of the offence by the perpetrator, and in the interpretation of data (this involves discretion) relating to offences. Let us examine the results of studies on the predictability factor in linking serial offences. The task of "prediction of dangerousness"(Norko & Baranoski, p73, 2008) gained importance in medicine in the seventies and eighties, not because of clinical wisdom or the "quest for testable hypotheses about human behaviour"(Norko & Baranoski, p 73, 2008) but out of a practical need to differentiate between patients who needed to be treated as in-patient, and out-patients, and to decide who could be permitted voluntary care, and who had to compulsorily be given treatment. The criterion of dangerousness was put forward as the basis for making these decisions. This dangerousness criterion and the necessity for doctors to predict its violent eruption became enshrined in several legal decisions between 1960 and 1980. However, as a reaction to this, psychiatrist Bernard Diamond declared that "Neither psychiatrists nor other behavioural scientists are able to predict the occurrence of violent behaviour with sufficient reliability to justify the restriction of freedom on the basis of the label of potential dangerousness." (Diamond, 1974, p 452 in Norko & Baranoski, pp73-74,2008) Research studies undertaken since 1990 have concluded variously. There are studies that demonstrate a) linkages between mental illness and violence, b) others that do not support such a linkage, and c) yet again other studies that "demonstrate the importance of nonmental health variables in relation to violence."(Norko & Baranoski, p75, 2008) Correlation (scenario-'a') has been established between major mental disorders and violence (Swanson et al., 1990), during periods of active psychotic illness (Link et al., 1992), when the psychosis is linked to threat/control-override (TCO) delusions (Link & Stueve, 1994; Link, Steuve, & Phelan, 1998; Swanson, Borum, Swartz, & Monahan, 1996). Failure to establish a connection between serious mental disorder and violence (scenario 'b') happened in other cases (Appelbaum, Robbins & Monahan, 2000; Steadman et al, 1998; Steadman et al, 2000). Further examination of the data revealed that threat delusions increased the risk of violence in males, while control-override decreased it. TCO delusions decrease violence risk for females (Teasdale et al, 2006) In other studies, symptoms of mental disorder are not different for violent and non-violent persons except in the case of substance abuse (SA) (Fulwiles, Grossman, Frobes & Ruthazer, 1997; Swanson, Borum, Swartz, & Hiday, 1999)(Cited in Norko & Baranoski, p 75, 2008) Studies that tried to correlate non-mental health factors with violence (scenario 'c' mentioned earlier) revealed significant linkages between violence and male gender, young age, low socio-economic status (SES) and low educational levels (Swanson et al, 1990; Link et al, 1992). Clinical studies zeroed in on the significance of youth (Swanson et al, 1999; Swanso et al, 2006) anger (Appelbaum et al, 2000; Skeem et al, 2006) and suspicion and impulsiveness (Appelbaum et al, 2000) A study to establish ecological variables found that patients living in areas of acute poverty tended more to violence (Silver, Mulvey, & Monahan, 1999) (Cited in Norko & Baranoski, p76, 2008). Norko & Baranoski then conclude by stating that : "Three conclusions can reasonably be drawn: 1- SA, alone and in combination with mental disorders, has consistently correlated with violence. 2- Socio-demographic factors contribute significantly more than health factors to violence. 3- Research findings are inconsistent and conflicting on the relationship between psychosis (and other symptoms of mental illness) and violence" (Norko & Baranoski, p76, 2008) If we examine the conclusions reached (above) we would realize that ultimately they are inconclusive. Notice that non-psychiatric factors obtain a greater accuracy than clinical methods. But the danger is that these non-psychiatric factors as viewed in the study are non-sensitive to the effects of treatment or the extent of clinical intervention. However, "Future research directions are encouraging in attempting to identify dynamic actuarial risk factors that will be both accurate and mutable." The data examined by us though inconclusive, does " present a useful framework for evaluating both assumptions and conclusions about the prediction of violence in a psychiatric population."(Nosko & Baranoski, 2008) Although, the attempt in the case of serial killings is one of trying to establish predictability, all data must necessarily be post facto. The data establishes linkages and tendencies of murders that have been detected, and attempts to murder. Since it would be absurd and impossible to compile a list of murders not yet committed, even in the case of apprehended serial killers, and much less in the case of a potential serial killer, the task of preventing killings is a very difficult one. It would be ethically reprehensible to brand a person as a potential serial killer merely because the person had all the 'qualifications'-like male, of a certain age-group, socio-economic-cultural background, substance abusing and so on. However, linkages, post-facto have helped in apprehending serial killers, and drawing up possible profiles. Putting together of data has found several common characteristics of serial killers: Such killing has been committed generally by white/ Caucasian males with moderate to high IQ's. They are generally in their mid-twenties (age ranges typically between 25 and 40 years). Such killings are usually intra-racial. They tend to act alone, and most commonly strangle or beat victims to death. Female serial killers were not so common-around 15% of solved cases, and are likely to poison their victims. (Mouzos & West, Serial Murder- Australia, 2007) An examination of the backgrounds of killers found linkages between murder and childhood cruelty to animals, bedwetting, arson, neglected by adults in childhood and psychological deprivation. Here, we must also keep in mind the fact that emphasis on environment or determinism have taken place in the case of many killers-perhaps encouraged by their lawyers-in order to mitigate the responsibility of their clients for their crimes. (Mouzos & West, Serial Murder- Australia, 2007) Serial killers tend to select a particular type of victim. Their victims are similar in age, appearance, occupation, lifestyle and so on. Victims could be young or vulnerable like children, older persons, the homeless, the mentally retarded or prostitutes. Male killers tend to target people not known previously to them, while females generally have gone for family members-generally people in their care, or infants. Victims are also people found closer to the perpetrator's home centre. (Mouzos & West, Serial Murder-Australia, 2007) Classification of killers into various 'types' have also been done. There is the 'visionary' who claims he receives instructions from God/ angels/ devils. There are those who carry out a mission, like ridding society of 'bad' elements like prostitutes. There are those who kill for pleasure-sex is involved before, during or after the killing, and some derive pleasure and excitement from the act of killing. Power/ control motives also drive a killer. In this case sex or rape is used to establish control rather than to indulge libido. (Mouzos & West, Serial Murder- Australia, 2007) As typical examples of serial killers we may look at the cases of Ted Bundy and David Berkowitz. Both of these killers had many of the traits mentioned above. Ted Bundy (1946-1989), an American, murdered women who bore a resemblance to someone who had broken off with him. He bludgeoned his victims, then strangled them, and also indulged in rape and necrophilia. Bundy's childhood was a disturbed one, and his relationships tangled. It is likely that he was the child of his mother, Louise, impregnated by her father. He grew up in a household, which hid the fact that Louise was his mother; he believed that she was his sister, till he discovered otherwise later. He was introverted and shy during his high school and college years. All of Bundy's victims were white and female, and most of them from a middle class background. The number of Bundy's killings have not been conclusively established. But they are estimated at around 35 plus. He seemed to have an urge to kill, and there was a disturbing story told of him by his aunt, who said that once, when he was three years old, she woke up from a nap to find knives arranged all around her, and Bundy smiling strangely at her. (Wikipedia, Ted Bundy) David Berkowitz, also an American (born 1953) murdered six people. He claimed that his neighbour had a dog, which was possessed by a demon which urged him to kill. He shot his victims. His was called the Son of Sam case, and there is a doubt that he may have not acted alone, but may have belonged to a satanic cult, which ordered him to kill. His childhood was troubled, and he also suffered from pyromania in his growing up years (indulged in arson). After he was nabbed, and his profiling was done, it was revealed that he may have been schizophrenic. (Wikipedia, Berkowitz) Though there are many similarities in the profiles and modus operandi of serial killers, there are too many differences, and individual quirkiness in each of them. The challenge of a psychiatrist or a police officer trying to profile them is to be able to detect patterns, without sacrificing observation of individual traits. It is the challenge of protecting (potential) victims without infringing on the personal freedom of a person who could be unfairly suspected of perpetrating murder. In this task, although there are precedents to guide one, one always has to be ready to face new and bizarre realities. Perhaps, the medical profession and governments have also to start looking at basic preventive measures-how to keep the population mentally healthy by providing the social, economic and psychological means that enables the development of well balanced personalities. Works Cited Mouzos, Jenny & West, David, An Examination of Serial Murder in Australia, website of The Australian Institute of Criminology, last modified, Dec.2007, retrieved on 11th March, 2008, Norko, Michael A & Barenoski, Madelon V, The Prediction of Violence; Detection of Dangerousness in Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, pp73-91, Oxfordjournals.org, February 2008, retrieved 11th march, 2008, Wikipedia] on David Berkowitz, , ] retrieved 11th March, 2008; ] on Ted Bundy, , retrieved 11th ] March, 2008 Read More