What can we learn about human attachment from studies of other animals - Essay Example

? Attachment Theory among Animals and Humans Supervisor Attachment is the long term psychological connection between a human being or animal with another of its kind, which binds them physically and withstands through time. This is characterised by the emotional relationship between a mother and its infant. The degree of this attachment has a significant influence on social development (Ainsworth 1989). This highlights the importance of using effective parenting in order to contribute to the development of a healthy infant. To have a better understanding on the theory of attachment, psychologists conducted various studies on the attachment between a mother and her infant among animals which shed light to the conduct of research in human development. This paper attempts to identify the findings of the research of Lorenz, Harlow, and other psychologists on the attachment between parent and child among animals. It also illustrates the implications and contributions of animal attachment in the context of human development. Finally, it demonstrates the similarities and differences of attachment between human and animal species. Imprinting among Birds The concept of attachment has been studied by Konrad Lorenz by observing the first social interaction of infant birds. Some geese eggs were hatched through an incubator without the sight of their parents. After a few hours, it was found out that the birds are now walking after Lorenz, without even looking for their mother. Lorenz called this situation the concept of imprinting. It is the first behavior acquired by the young from its first sight of movement through the mother (cited in Hess 1964). In this experiment, Lorenz found out that he was the first object which got printed in the minds of the newly hatched geese. As a result, the geese perceived Lorenz to be their mother and develop their first emotional attachment towards Lorenz. The first few movements of the geese and the particular behavior that the geese learn from their mother are called filial imprinting. Filial imprinting was proven to be a result of genetic characteristics among infants which occurs in the early stage of life and could remain imprinted in their behavior when they reach adulthood (Hess 1964). Attachment among Monkeys The subject of emotional attachment between young and parent was also studied by Seay, Hansen, and Harlow (1962). They observed the behavior of a mother and infant monkeys when they are separated from each other upon birth. The immediate reaction of infant monkeys is to cling to their mothers, which are a strong manifestation of anxiety from the idea of separation. This proves that mammal species may also experience imprinting process. The study of Chamove, Rosenblum, and Harlow (1973) also reinforced the significance of the role of parenting and attachment among infant monkeys to the quality of their social skills in adulthood. Through the study, the behavior of two groups of infant rhesus, which was separated from their mother was observed against rhesus that was raised by their mothers. The first grew up in a group of four rhesuses while the second grew up in pairs. This was compared with the last two groups who were raised by surrogate and real mother. Their behavior with peers was observed in two periods: during infancy and adult stage. The findings showed that during infancy, the groups who grew away from their mother are less playful and less friendly compared to infant monkeys who grew with their parents. Moreover, when the monkeys reached adulthood, those who grew without their mother displayed extreme behavior. They have less interest in play, show too much proximity to other monkeys, and very inclined to hostility. The study showed that behaviors learned from peers during infancy as a result of attachment can be carried towards adulthood which might become so extreme and can hinder adequate social development (Chamove, Rosenblum, & Harlow 1973). In addition, Spence (1937) also conducted an experiment on the attachment between infant chimpanzees and their mothers. To identify the behavioral response of the mothers, the infants were separated from them after the birth of the chimpanzees. The findings showed that among the seven mothers, five of them showed strong emotional responses for their own infant by displaying violent behaviors to regain their infant (Spencer 1937, cited in Seay, Hansen, Harlow 1962, p.123). This shows the presence of strong emotional attachment between mammals even in an early stage of life. Phases of Imprinting among Ducklings Imprinting is the behavior learned or imprinted during the critical stage of the life of ducklings. This begins from the period of hatching up to 32 or 36 hours. In addition, at age 13 to 16 hours, the imprinting process is at peak which enables the young to learn from the behavior of its mother quickly (Hess 1964). Since the behavior learned is based on instinct, the young species can learn from anyone or anything which they first observed without giving particular attention if that species is their own kind. Thus, imprinting may apply to behavior learned by infant species from a completely different kind of species. This took place in the experiment of Lorenz among newly hatched geese. According to Hess (1958), when the eggs are hatched, the most common figure that they would first notice moving is their mother. Thus, their instinctual behavior is to go where the mother goes. However, if they observe another moving figure, they will follow it even though it is not their mother. This imprinting or learning occurs in three different phases. First Phase: Imprinting or learning is evident when the ducklings followed the first person whom they saw moving even though the model figure is not their mother (Danielson 2007). Second Phase: In this stage, there is increased imprinting among the ducklings which is manifested in the increased effort to follow the model figure wherever it goes (Danielson 2007). Third Phase: This phase is characterised by the decreased imprinting among ducklings as a result of fear towards the model figure. Since the ducklings begin to recognise a threat to their security, they will stop following the model figure which denotes the end of the critical imprinting stage (Danielson 2007). Learning acquired from the critical stage will have a significant influence in the attachment between the first moving object and the young. In addition, the attachment formed during this period is not easily erased after the critical imprinting stage which can influence the way the ducklings respond to its social environment (Danielson 2007). Implications of Animal Attachment in the Stage of Human development The study of attachment between the parents and their young among birds, monkeys, and other nonhuman species has set the stage for the conduct of further studies in the attachment of parents and child among humans. Psychologists became interested in the possible application of the attachment theories derived from the experiment among animals in the context of human development. For instance, the experiment in the separation of mother monkeys to their young has resulted to long term social behavior implications to the infant monkeys. If this theory is applicable to humans, the studies from attachment among animals would suggest the crucial role of parents for the emotional and social development of their child. Moreover, the imprinting or learning process observed from the experiments of geese also applies to the learning process among human infants. Among young geese, their most vulnerable stage for imprinting which can greatly shape their emotional attachment is from zero to six months (Hess 1958). In a similar way, human infants also have a critical learning stage which corresponds to the critical imprinting stage among geese. On this stage, the babies begin to recognise whom their parents are which is also called filial imprinting. The close similarity between the learning process of infants among animals and humans led to the conduct of further studies, which reinforced the strong application of attachment theory among humans. The study of Bowlby (1960) showed that parenting plays a crucial role in the development of social skills among children since certain behaviors acquired from parents during infancy are imprinted in the behavior of children which can largely shape their social development. His study also suggest that similar to the observations of the behavior of infant monkeys, the social behavior of infant babies when they grow up is also largely influenced by their degree of attachment towards their parents. Bowlby (1960) identified several attachment responses of infants which include crying, and smiling. This can be equated to the clinging behavior of infant monkeys to their parents. Moreover, Bowlby (1960) also recognised the phases of attachment among human infants, which corresponds to the critical imprinting stage among birds. Phase 1. Responds to any person (From birth to 8-12 weeks) At this stage, babies begin to respond to their environment by smiling, dabbling, and grasping. They also stop crying on the sight of a person or when a voice is heard which keeps people close to them. In this period, babies may learn from anyone without choosing the persons they want to be with. This is similar to the imprinting stage among ducklings when they followed the first moving object they observed without caring if it is their mother or not (Driscoll & Nagel 2010). Phase 2. Gives attention to familiar people ( 3 to 6 months) In this period, the infant begins to display more social behavior to people who are more familiar to them such as their parents. For instance, they start to smile frequently to familiar faces while they give long stare to strangers. At this stage, infants begin to have close attachment to their parents. This also applies to the attachment phase of ducklings when they build attachment through their increased effort in following their model figure (Driscoll & Nagel 2010). Phase 3. Seeks nearness to attachment models (6 months to 3 years) In this phase, the infant begins to display more selective behavior for their social interaction. They cry when the persons they are deeply attached with leaves them and displays happiness when they show up. Along with this, the infant also begins to become fearful of the sight of strangers and would choose to stay away from them. This is also similar to the attachment process of ducklings since at this phase; they may stop following their model figure as a result of fear (Driscoll & Nagel 2008). Phase 4. Cooperates to Parent’s concern (3 years to end of childhood) At this stage, the child starts to understand the purpose if the mother leaves the child for awhile. In effect, the child becomes more flexible to the plans of the parent and becomes more cooperative (Driscoll & Nagel 2010). The phases of development among human infants showed strong similarities to the imprinting process among geese. This suggests that the attachment theory has a strong implication to the understanding of emotional and social development among human infants. Contributions to research in human development The results of the study of Harlow, Lorenz and Tinbergen on the attachment theory among animals gave way to the conduct of various researches for understanding human development. There was strong evidence that attachment of parents to their infant among rhesus monkeys can determine the long term social skills of the infants. In effect, various psychologists and researchers were encouraged to conduct a study on whether or not the attachment between parents and their babies also havea similar long term effect on the development of a child, particularly in the child's social and emotional asoect. One of these is the study of Bowlby (1960) which aimed to find out if the emotional and social response of infants from being separated from their mother has a significant relationship to their emotional response from a loss of loved ones during adulthood. The findings showed that the separation between a mother and an infant who is about six months old for three or four years have a significant effect on the emotional response of the infant to experiences of loss as the infant grows up. The result of the research puts emphasis on the critical role that parenting plays in the emotional and social development of an infant (Bowlby1960). Similarities and Differences between nonhuman and human attachment Attachment between parents and infant among animals is similar to the attachment among humans based on the fact that both infants commonly gain their first movement experience from their parent and thus, develop the first imprinting and emotional attachment towards them. When they are separated from their parents at the critical stage of their development, both animal and human infant also display almost similar separation anxiety responses which is clinging for infant monkeys and crying for babies. Based on studies, the underlying emotions and behavior of these infants as a result of early separation from parents may remain until they grow up and may have negative effects to their social interaction. However, attachment among humans may differ based on several variables such as cultural environment wherein the infant is born. According to Harwood, Miller and Irizarry (1995) the cultural background of the parent and infant will also influence their degree of attachment. For instance, German parents prefer to have lesser attachment to their infants since their culture puts a high value on independence. With the desire to make their child highly independent, parents prefer to avoid attaching themselves very closely to their infants. On the other hand, the culture of Japan places high value on emotional dependence to members of the family. For this reason, Japanese mothers never separate themselves from their infants (Harwood, Miller & Irizarry 1995). This denotes that unlike in animals, human attachment should be understood in a broader context by studying the social, cultural, and economic background that can influence the parenting style of mothers towards their infants. Conclusion Based on research, the concept of imprinting among birds can apply to the first process of learning among infant babies when they observe and learn from other persons without selection. In addition, the experiment of attachment and separation among parent and infant monkeys also showed similarities from the emotional response of human infants when they are separated from their parents. Findings from these studies show the significant application of attachment theory among animals in the context of human development. This suggest the crucial role of effective and proper parenting among humans to significantly influence the healthy emotional and social development of infants. References Ainsworth, MS 1989, ‘Attachments beyond infancy’, American Psychologist, vol. 44, no. 4,(4),pp. 709-716. Bowlby, J 1960, ‘Grief and mourning in infancy and early childhood’, Psychoanalytic study of the child vol.15 no. 1, pp. 9-52. Chamove, AS, Rosenblum, LA & Harlow, HF 1973, ‘Monkeys (< i> macaca mulatta) raised only with peers: a pilot study’, Animal behaviour vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 316-325. Danielson, RR 2007, Ethological Theories: Darwin, Lorenz, and Tinbergen, and Bowlby and Ainsworth, viewed 4 December 2013, http://danielson.laurentian.ca/ drdnotes/5106_crain_ch03.htm#ModernEthologyLorenzandTinbergen Driscoll, A, Nagel, NG 2010, Bowlby’s sequence for the development of attachment, viewed 5 December, 2013, http://www.education.com/reference/ article/bowlby-sequence-attachment/ Harwood, RL, Miller, JG, Irizarry, LC 1995, Cultural Attachment: Perception of the Child in Context. The Guilford Press, New York. Hess, EH 1958, ‘Imprinting in animals’, Scientific American, vol. 198, no. 3, pp. 81-90. Hess, EH 1964, ‘Imprinting in birds’, Science vol. 146, no. 3648, pp. 1128-1139. Seay, B Hansen, E & Harlow, HF 1962, ‘Mother-infant separation in monkeys’, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, vol. 3 no. 3?4, pp.123-132. Read More