Substance Misuse - Essay Example

? SUBSTANCE MISUSE By Lecturer: of Affiliation: and Substance Misuse Part One: Psychoactive substances arethose substances that act on the nervous system to change the consciousness condition, regulate perceptions and alter moods of a person (Kassel 2010, p. 39).These substances activate dopamine receptors in the brain pathway; thus contributing to varied health and social problems in the society (Goodman, 2006, p. 76). Substance use and dependence not only create a burden to an individual but also to the societies. The world health report indicates that about 10% of the total burden of disorder results from use of psychoactive substances (WHO, 2004, p. 7). Much of the problems or burdens attributive to substance misuse is the results of numerous health and social problems in the society. Many psychoactive substances users use these drugs for varied reasons such as personal gratification, for pleasure, need for adaptation to the situation, curiosity, harsh realities and need for social interactions. Continuous use of psychoactive substances can contribute to tolerance, which is the need to increase drug amounts or dosages in the body and it can also lead to dependence, or addiction. Therefore, biological factors such as genetic predisposition, family history, withdrawal effects, reinforcing and biochemical factors play significant roles in substance abuse. Psychoactive substance use is a complex phenomenon; thus a tangled interaction of factors contributes to the need for using psychoactive substances frequently. Varied factors play significant roles in substance use susceptibility such as the psychological makeup including the self-esteem depression among others (Goodman, 2006, p. 91). Biological factors, environmental conditions, as well as, the drug availability are among the aspects that can contribute to substance use. El-Guebaly (2003, p. 766) argues that understanding substance abuse or addiction is vital because it can enable an individual to understand the way the brain functions and the way certain substances have the potential for abuses. It can also enable an individual to understand the effect of substance abuse in case biological differences exist among individuals in their susceptibility to abuse drugs. Psychoactive substances interact with the brain and alter communication between the brain cells. The brain cells play significant roles of communicating with one another through neurotransmitters, which are brain chemicals that transmits information. Some psychoactive drugs are capable of aping the effects of neurotransmitter while others many interfere with the normal function of the brain through blocking; thus altering the way transmitters functions (Kassel, 2010, p. 35. The human brains are structured in an effective way with high specialized brain functions; thus psychoactive substances may alter the functions or activities of brain because different psychoactive substances act in the brain mechanisms in dissimilar way to generate their effects (Peterson and McBride, 2002, p.75).These substances can bind to dissimilar receptor types; thereby decreasing or increasing the activities of the neurons through diverse of mechanisms. On the other hand, the psychoactive drugs can contribute to differential behaviors or differential rate of tolerance development or differential withdrawals symptoms or it may produce short-term or long-term brain effects. In addition, psychoactive drugs may alter the brain function and this will contribute to the substance dependence, which is a disorder of altered brain functions. These substances may impact the normal functioning of the brain mechanism because the result of the brain system is its actions and thoughts. Brain disorders can contribute to highly complex behavioral systems to an individual (Kassel, 2010, p. 122). The brain can experience varied problems such as upsetting brain injuries and syndromes or the brain may suffer from other as problems such as epilepsy, stoke and other neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, in this case, the behavioral output will be recognized as being part of the brain disease; thus motivational interviewing is necessary in diagnosing behavioral output (Miller and Rollnick, 2002, p. 34). The World Health Organization attempts to offer a comprehensive overview on the way biological factors are connected to substance use (Goodman, 2006, p. 37). Two biological factors play significant roles in substance abuse and this includes the biological status of a human being taking psychoactive drugs and the effects for drug of abuse exerted on an individual. The later relates to the acute mechanisms of action of substance abuse in the brain and the long-term drug effects, which may occur after chronic exposure (Springer and Rubin (2009, p. 81). However, the former is concerned with the biological constitution of an individual and notably the existence of innate biological characteristics, which affects the reaction of an individual to drugs. Several studies have attempted to provide the reasons that make an individual to become highly dependent on drugs while others do not even become dependent on drugs even though both individuals are exposed to the same environment (Kroll & Taylor, 2002, 56: Jenkins, 2005, p. 71). These studies have attempted to reveal the way historical or genetic biological components play significant roles in substance abuse and addiction; the inherited genetic differences among individuals may affect their differences and responses to drugs. Studies of human biological factors contribute to the understating of genetic factors in substance abuse and addiction; these studies shed light on the question as to whether substance dependency is transmitted from one generation to another. The complex nature of substance dependency involves many behavioral and environments factors, which indicates that genetic components interacts with non-genetic factors to produce the development of drug abuse and addiction (Barnard, 2006, p. 123). Many drug abusers engage in drug addiction; because of familial tendency or hereditary; thus indicating that genetic factors play significant role in drug addiction. Psychoactive substances are classified in different types such as stimulants, depressants and hallucinogens; thus these drugs interact with the central nervous system in different ways to cause addiction. However, varied biological factors such as biochemical, reinforcing, psychiatric disorders and craving effects play varied roles in substance addiction. For instance, depressant drugs slows down the mental or physical activities of an individual; thereby altering the functions of the brain. However, stimulants drugs can increase the activities of the central nervous system but hallucinogen drugs may alter perception; thus generating unusual visual images (Coombs, 2001, p. 32). For example, alcohol is one of the depressants psychoactive substances, which slows down the activities of the brain or it may increase the activities of neurotransmitters. Therefore, alcohol users tend to engage in compulsive drinking and the effect of alcohol in the body vary across individuals; this depends on varied factors such as individual tolerance, the amount of alcohol consumed, body weight and alcohol metabolism. Therefore, psychoactive substances can affect normal perceptual, emotional and motivation process in the central nervous system. Varied studies have attempted to reveal the way substance users can withdraw or abstain from psychoactive substances and the way treatment can tackle abstinence syndrome (Watkins, Lewellen & Barrett, 2002, p. 41; Springer & Rubin, 2009, p. 101). Abstinence syndrome is one of the aspects that attempt to explain the way substance users can withdraw from drug addiction. Abstinence syndrome refers to the cluster of symptoms, which are being observed in an individual once he or she stops or abstains from drug abuse. It is also a physiological changes that drug abuser undergo when they have become physically dependent on substance use; the intensity of abstinence syndrome varies depending on the type of drug or substance consumed. The treatment for abstinence syndrome depends on the drugs consumed and the overall health of an individual. Appropriate treatment can relief the discomfort caused by drug addiction to an individual and it can prevent further development of serious symptoms, as well as, prevent cumulative effects, which might worsen future withdrawals. Many hospital settings offer the safest setting for the treatment of abstinence syndrome but patients with mild symptoms can be treated successfully on an outpatient basis. For instance, severe alcohol withdrawal requires pharmacological intervention but a range variety of medications have been employed for this purpose. Symptoms of alcohol withdrawal varies from severity to mild tremors to massive convulsions such as withdrawal seizures and this can cause pain and suffering to an individual. For example, the central nervous system of an individual may experience reverse effect when high concentration of ethanol and other biochemical inhibitors slow down the functions of cells in the body during withdrawal. Therefore, the aim of offering alcohol withdrawal treatment measures is to reduce the discomfort caused by the drugs to the patient and prevent further occurrence of serious problems. Connors, Donovan and DiClemente (2001, p. 121) argue that withdrawals treatment can offer a patient an opportunity to engage in long-term treatment. The treatment program reduces the severity of abstinence syndrome and the treatment measures vary according to the syndrome, and thus, understanding the adverse effects or significance of administering varied drugs vital for tackling abstinence syndrome is imperative. The recent research studies conducted indicated there is a possibility damage of the central nervous system for patients who experience substance withdrawal (South, 1999, p. 82). Therefore, it was suggested that all patients exhibiting substance withdrawal symptoms should receive pharmacotherapy in order to reduce the severity of the symptoms. Pharmacotherapy is an effective prevention measures for patients with withdrawal symptoms; thus patients requires daily care services. Moreover, the use of sedatives treatment of substance withdrawals is imperative. Physicians can also administer treatment drugs such as benzodiazepine, diazepam and other substances to patients with alcohol withdrawal symptoms. Bibliography Barnard, M. (2006). Drug Addiction and Families. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Connors, G. J., Donovan, D. M., & DiClemente, C. C. (2001). Substance abuse treatment and the stages of change: Selecting and planning interventions. New York: Guilford Press. Coombs, R. H. (2001). Addiction recovery tools: A practical handbook. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications. El-Guebaly, N. (January 01, 2003). Drugs and Addictive Behaviour. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 48, 766. Goodman, A. (2006). Social Work with Drug and Substance Misusers. Learning Matters: Exeter. Jenkins, R. (2005). Cannabis and Young People: Reviewing the Evidence. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Kassel, J. D. (2010). Substance abuse and emotion. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Kroll B & Taylor A (2002).Parental Substance Misuse & Child Welfare. London: Jessica Kingsley. Miller, W. & Rollnick, S. (2002). Motivational Interviewing (2nd edn). New York: The Guildford Press. Peterson, T. & McBride, A. (2002). Working with Substance Misusers: A Guide to Theory and Practice. London: Routledge. South, N. (1999). Drugs: Cultures, Controls and Everyday Life. London: Sage. Springer & Rubin (2009). Substance Abuse Treatment for Youth and Adults. Bognor Regis: John Wiley. Watkins T.R., Lewellen, A. & Barrett M. C. (2002). Dual Diagnosis: An Integrated Approach to Treatment. London: Sage. WHO (October 01, 2004). Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and Dependence. Journal of Addiction, 99, 10, 1-40. Part Two: Psychological factors play significant roles in substance abuse; thus varied theories of substance misuse have been implemented in order to explain the way an individual engages in drug abuse. Classical and operant conditions are among the theories that attempt to explain the cause for certain behavioral activities that contributes to substance misuse. Learning or conditioning process is a process that eventually contributes to relative permanent change in behavior (Winyard, 2005, p. 56). Some of these behaviors are innate meaning that an individual is born with them while other are acquired through learning process or interaction with the surrounding environment. Therefore, psychological factors are those factors that are adaptive in which the tendency to perform a certain behavior is altered by experience. Therefore, new behaviors emerge through learning (conditioning) and old behaviors are also eradicated through change of circumstances or learning process. Ghodse and Ghodse (2010, p. 56) believe that unlike biological theories that lay emphasis on the physical structure and the brain, psychological factors attempts to associate behavior to processes that occur in the brain of human beings. Therefore, psychological behaviors such as curiosity, psychological distress, fatigue or boredom, stress among other are linked with substance misuse; thus classical and operant conditioning theories are the central to behavioral psychology, which are relevant to substance misuse. Operant conditioning theory attempt to explain the reason for increased substance misuse because this theory links the behaviors with the consequence. Operant conditioning is an effective behavioral theory that was developed by B.F skinner; thus, this theory attempts to explain about behavior modification by utilizing positive and negative reinforcement or punishment to alter or modify behavior (Klee, Jackson and Lewis, 2001, p. 41). This theory is based on the notion that a behavior is reinforced but the behavior cannot be reinforced every time; thus undesirable behavior can be punished. In an operant conditioning, positive reinforcement provides the desirable effects for behaviors with an aim of increasing the probability being repeated in the future (Donohue and Azrin, 2012, p. 78). Positive reinforcer employs reward system; thus the reward may be a cluster of brains composition, which attempt to manage or regulate a behavior through inducing pleasant effects. Classical conditioning can offer an effective explanation about the increased substance misuse. The classical conditioning theory uses a neutral stimulus and it invokes the response to generate a conditioned response (Teeson, Degenhardt and Hall, 2002, p. 67). The conditions are examples of associative learning process, which is influenced by biological and cognitive processes; thus shaping the behavior of an individual. This theory was developed by Ivan Pavlov who aimed to determine the way individual respond to the previously neutral stimulus through learning process or conditioning (Goodman, 2009, p. 105). For instance, if an individual is craving or having a desire to take alcohol or drug use, removing an individual from the learned cues, which trigger the substance use is vital. This immediate separation of unconditional stimulus (the drugs) and the conditioned stimulus (people who use drugs) are significant ways of treatment method explained under classical conditioning model. The research study experiment that was conducted in the laboratory under classical conditioning revealed that some drugs reactions take place in case a drug is repeatedly paired with a stimulus. People formerly addicted to substance users have strong connections and cravings when they are around with drug users or in places where there are easy availability of drugs. For instance, habitual alcohol users may find that the smell of alcohol offers them the feeling of alertness, which they get from drinking alcohol. Thombs (2006, p. 97) points out that most behavioral approaches to the addictive substance treatment have extensive research evidence in support of drug treatment efficacy. Behavioral approaches have been developed under different conditions such as operant and classical conditions; thus there is a significant need for employing effective measures for controlling the experiments. This is because behavioral approaches presume that the substance misuse disorders are sustained through universal ideas of learning or conditioning process. Operant conditioning theory can be applied in treatment of drug abuse through reinforcing or punishing the behavior. For example, substance act as the positive reinforcers but it does not appear apparent on the way operant model accounts for some aspect of substance misuse behavior. Positive reinforcement model assumes that treatment or drugs administered to drug users acts as positive reinforcers and that the behavior can be controlled through drug self-administration (Velleman, 2001, p. 57). Although, the consequences of using some drugs can be unhealthy and painful; hence this ought to punish the substance users from using them. The positive behavior may modify the behavior of an individual but this take place through punishing consequences. People usually seek treatment when they experience varied problems from drug abuse but the question is that if addictive substance use is positively reinforcing the behavior by punishing an individual, then why would users stop taking addictive drugs? There are many cases where drugs have been destructive and also caused pain but people continue using them despite the consequences they inflict or cause to an individual (Jung, 2010, p. 32). People often experience physical discomfort and health risks among others; thus most positive reinforcers linked with treatment of drug abuse can produce negative results, which can motivate individual to seek treatment in order to stop using addictive substances. In addition, negative reinforcers can be applied in the treatment of drug users because this approach is concerned with rewarding and removing unwanted behavior. This approach employs reward system because an individual is rewarded for the desired behavior through having unpleasant behavior removed. The removal of unwanted behavior is the reward and this contributes to behavior modification (Caan and De, 2002, p. 46). For instance, a student may find it undesirable to be monitored closely by teachers for being a drug abuser. In case the student is making efforts of reducing bad drinking habits and following the school law up the required standard, he or she will not be monitored closely anymore. The removal of monitoring in this case serves as the reward to the student for behaving well and avoiding bad drinking habits. Behavioral therapy for treatment drug misuse disorders can also be used primarily in operant and classical theories. The major perception is behavioral therapy is that altering the reinforcement incidents, which administer the behavior, can modify the behavior since drug misuse is a learned behavior. These theories can serve the purpose of treating the substance misuse, contingency management or coping learning skills (Orford, 2001, p. 87). The theory of classical conditioning theory can apply to treatment of substance abuse and in this case, behavior is assumed to occur repeatedly without being reinforced. Therefore, abstinence for drugs and avoiding places where substances are accessed can reduce the stimulus behavior of craving for drug use. Classical conditioning plays a crucial role in cognitive behavioral treatment especially in the interventions directed towards reducing some craving behaviors of substance use. Pavlov demonstrated when he was carrying out laboratory experiments in classical conditioning that repeated conditioned and non-conditioned stimulus could obtain the habituated response (Martin, 2008, p. 132). Therefore, the therapist attempts to help patients recognize or understand conditioned psychological behaviors such as craving for substance use. This can help in identifying conditioned cues for such unwanted behaviors; thus providing necessary training skills vital for behavior modification. Learning new skills is an affective way of modifying the behavior but this requires time and repetition. Substance users tend to be highly entrenched and many patients take long time to seek treatment or medication when the disease has become chronic. Therefore, stimulating patients to become aware of the risks of substances and enable them to change their behaviors related to substance misuse can be done through treatment sessions (Emmett and Nice, 2005, p. 37). This session can be repeated and every time the patients are encouraged to identify their obvious and subtle determinants of substance misuse. Each session should end with raising awareness on the possible pitfalls and high-risks aspects that may take place in the next session and stimulate patients to become aware of the impacts of substance misuse. In conclusion, psychological behaviors such as curiosity, psychological distress, fatigue or boredom, stress among other are linked with substance misuse; thus classical and operant conditioning theories are the central to behavioral psychology, which are relevant to substance abuse. The idea of classical and operant conditioning attempts to reveal the aspects that contributes to substance misuse. In an operant conditioning, a behavior is positively or negatively reinforced but the behavior cannot be reinforced every time; thus negative or positive punishment can also be applied. The classical conditioning theory employs unbiased stimulus and it invokes the reaction to produce a conditioned response. This theory also explained the way an individual involves in substance misuse. This is because individuals formerly addicted to substance users have strong connections and cravings when they are around with drug users. Therefore, behavioral therapy for treatment of drug misuse disorders can be used primarily in operant and classical theories. These theories are crucial because they can help in modifying the unwanted behavior through learning process. Bibliography Caan, W., & De, B. J. (2002). Drink, Drugs And Dependence: From Science To Clinical Practice. London: Routledge. Donohue, B., & Azrin, N. H. (2012). Treating Adolescent Substance Abuse Using Family Behavior Therapy: A step by step approach. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Ghodse, H., & Ghodse, H. (2010). Ghodse's Drugs And Addictive Behaviour: A guide to Treatment, 4th Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Goodman, A. (2009). Social work with drug and substance misusers. Exeter [England: Learning Matters. Emmett, D., & Nice, G. (2005). Understanding Street Drugs: A Handbook of Substance Misuse for Parents, Teachers and Other Professionals. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Jung, J. (2010). Alcohol, Other Drugs, And Behavior: Psychological Research Perspectives. Los Angeles: Sage. Klee, H. Jackson, M., & Lewis, S. (2001). Drug Misuse and Motherhood. London: Routledge. Martin, C.R. (2008). Identification and Treatment of Alcohol Dependency. Keswick: M&K. Orford, J. (2001). Excessive appetites: A psychological view of addictions, 2nd edition. Chichester, West Sussex, England: Wiley. Teeson, M. Degenhardt, L. & Hall, W. (2002). Addiction. London: Routledge. Thombs, D. (2006). Introduction to Addictive Behaviors. Abingdon: Routledge. Velleman, R. (2001). Counseling for Alcohol Problems. London: Sage. Winyard, R. (Ed.) (2005).Substance Misuse in Primary Care. Oxford: Radcliffe. Read More